When solving these problems, it is often necessary to establish the fact of dilution of a drink, partial or complete replacement of an expensive alcoholic drink with a cheap one, the fact that such a drink belongs to a certain type, type, brand, batch of production. If identifying the fact of dilution is not particularly difficult, then detecting the replacement of an alcoholic drink with another or establishing the nature of the original and added alcohol-containing liquid requires qualified research.

As an analysis of expert and investigative practice shows, one of the main ways of falsifying alcoholic beverages, in particular vodka, is the substitution of food grade ethyl alcohol with technical (hydrolysis) or synthetic ethyl alcohol, prohibited for consumption for food purposes, as well as the use of poorly purified food grade alcohol.

Counterfeiting of alcoholic products (wines, cognacs, vodkas, etc.) can occur with the participation of industrially produced ingredients (alcohol, essences, etc.), bottling, capping and packaging of which take place in non-factory conditions. The production of certain products, including moonshine, can be done at home.

The objects of research are: closures (caps, plugs, etc.); special stamps, labels, seals and stamps on them; contents of the bottle.

The contents of containers are examined by forensic materials scientists specializing in the field of forensic studies of alcohol-containing liquids.

Classification of alcohol-containing liquids

Classification of alcoholic beverages and their characteristics. Ethyl alcohols are divided into three large groups: food, technical and synthetic.

Edible alcohols are obtained mainly from starch-containing raw materials: grain crops, potatoes, beets and molasses sugar beet production waste. It is also possible to obtain edible ethyl alcohol from grapes in the production of cognac, and from apples in the production of Calvados apple alcohol.

The raw materials for industrial alcohols are waste from sulfite-cellulose production and wood hydrolysis products.

Synthetic ethyl alcohols are produced from natural gases containing ethylene and associated gases obtained during oil refining.

The technological process for producing edible ethyl alcohol from starch-containing raw materials includes the following main stages:

* boiling potatoes or grains in water in order to disrupt the cellular structure and dissolve starch;

* cooling of the boiled mass and saccharification of starch with enzymes of malt (sprouted grain) or mold cultures. During saccharification, starch is partially converted into maltose and glucose, easily fermented by yeast, and proteins are decomposed into peptides and amino acids suitable for feeding yeast;

* fermentation of sugars by yeast into alcohol. The resulting mash (fermenting wort) is a complex multicomponent system consisting of water (82...90%), dry substances (4...10%) and ethyl alcohol with accompanying volatile impurities (5...8%). Volatile impurities are alcohols, aldehydes, acids, and ethers. Their total content does not exceed 0.5% ethyl alcohol content. In this case, the largest amount of impurities falls on the share of methyl, propyl, isobutyl, and isoamyl alcohols. The last three alcohols form the basis of fusel oil;

* distillation of alcohol from mash and its rectification. The fermented solution containing 8.5...9% alcohol is sent for distillation, which is the separation of ethyl alcohol from the mature mash along with the volatile impurities it contains. The content of the latter is about 0.5%. As a result of the distillation of alcohol, raw alcohol is obtained in distillation apparatuses, and rectified alcohol is obtained in distillation apparatuses.

All alcoholic drinks and alcohol-containing liquids are classified according to two bases: production method;

strength, or volumetric content of ethyl alcohol.

According to the method of production, alcohol-containing liquids are divided into those made at home, home-made, and factory-made, factory-made.

Based on strength, alcoholic drinks are divided into the following groups:

* low alcohol, ethyl alcohol content 515% vol.;

* strong, ethyl alcohol content from 1660% vol. and higher.

Low-alcohol drinks include mash, various wines, the content of ethyl alcohol in which does not exceed the specified values. Strong alcoholic drinks include moonshine, strong and dessert wines, vodka, rum, cognac, etc.

Homemade alcohol-containing liquids mainly include the following.

Mash is made by fermenting any carbohydrate-containing raw materials (sugar, beets, potatoes, grain crops, animal feed, berries, etc.) with baker's or brewer's yeast.

Moonshine is a strong alcoholic beverage produced by distilling a fermented substrate (mash) using an artisanal method.

Their strength ranges from 30 to 60%. These types of alcoholic drinks are sometimes infused with aromatic products (orange, lemon peels, nutmeg, etc.), and various fruit essences are added, which complicates their diagnosis.

In addition to those indicated at home, the following can be produced:

* wines from fruits and berries. Wines are distinguished from other alcohol-containing liquids by their characteristic delicate taste and aroma, and other organoleptic characteristics (color, transparency, absence of sediment);

* cider is a low-alcohol carbonated drink (5...7% alcohol by volume), obtained as a result of fermentation of apple juice;

* beer is a low-alcohol sparkling drink with a characteristic hop aroma, containing varying amounts of alcohol (1.5...7% vol.), obtained by alcoholic fermentation of wort from barley malt with the obligatory addition of hops;

* kvass (strength 1...2% vol.) - a refreshing drink made from a mixture of rye and barley malt, rye flour or rye crackers, sugar and water, followed by alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation.

The following types of alcoholic beverages are produced in factories. Depending on the raw materials, wines are divided into grape (GOST 7208-84) and fruit and berry (GOST 17292-83).

Grape wine is a drink obtained as a result of alcoholic fermentation of grape must or pulp of fresh or dried grapes.

In accordance with the classification, wines are divided into varietal wines, produced from one grape variety, and blends, prepared from several grape varieties.

Depending on the alcohol and sugar content, grape wines are divided into:

* natural dry, special dry, semi-dry and semi-sweet;

* special dry, strong, semi-dessert, dessert and liqueur.

Dry wines are wines obtained by complete fermentation of grape must or pulp.

Semi-dry, semi-sweet and sweet wines are wines obtained by complete fermentation of grape must or pulp with the addition of sugar or concentrated grape must.

Strong, semi-dessert and dessert wines - wines obtained by complete or incomplete fermentation of grapes

must or pulp with the addition of ethyl alcohol, sugar, concentrated grape must or mistelle.

Natural and special wines can be flavored, i.e. containing infusions of aromatic herbs and roots.

Based on the carbon dioxide content, there are still, sparkling wines (carbonated “Cider”, “Salyut”), obtained by physically saturating the processed wine material with carbon dioxide, and sparkling wines, saturated with carbon dioxide during the secondary fermentation of dry, unfermented wine materials with the addition of liqueur or sugar, obtained by fermenting grape must in sealed containers. These include wines such as “Champagne” and “Donskoye”.

Depending on the quality and aging period, wines are divided into young, unaged, aged, vintage and collection.

A separate group consists of sparkling wines saturated with carbon dioxide through the natural method of secondary fermentation in hermetically sealed bottles. The increased carbon dioxide content in champagne causes the wine to foam and “play.” Champagne is characterized by a specific taste and bouquet that develops during the process of secondary fermentation.

In addition to the above classifications, it is necessary to point out that grape wines are divided into three groups based on color: white, pink and red.

In addition to grapes, various fruits (apples, pears, plums, etc.) can serve as raw materials for making wines. Wines made by alcoholic fermentation of sugared juice of fresh fruits or sugared juice obtained from pre-fermented fruit pulp are called fruit and berry wines. They are divided into varietals, made from the juice of one type of fruit, and blends, produced from a regulated mixture of juices of various fruits.

Depending on the preparation technology, fruit wines are divided into the following groups:

* dry, prepared by complete fermentation of juice;

* semi-dry, semi-sweet and sweet, prepared by additional sugaring of dry wine materials;

* dessert varietals, prepared by fermenting the juice of one type of fruit (except apples) and then bringing it to the required concentration by adding ethyl alcohol and sugar;

* special technology, prepared by fermenting apple juice using special technological techniques that give the wine characteristic organoleptic properties;

* effervescent, prepared by physically saturating wine materials obtained by fermentation of fruit juice with carbon dioxide;

* sparkling, prepared by biological saturation with carbon dioxide of endogenous origin of wine materials obtained by fermentation of fruit juice.

Vodka (GOST 12712-80) is a strong alcoholic drink, which is a mixture of specially prepared softened water (hardness up to 1 mEq/l) and rectified ethyl alcohol (GOST 5962-67). The alcohol content in vodka can be 40.0...45.0; 50.0 or 56.0% vol. In the process of preparing vodka, the water-alcohol mixture is passed through activated carbon. In appearance, vodka is always colorless and transparent. Some types of vodka add a small amount of impurities (soda, sugar, etc.). A separate group consists of special high-grade vodkas with a strength of 40.0...45.0% vol. with an emphatically specific aroma and taste obtained through the introduction of certain aromatic components.

Liqueurs (GOST 7190) - a group of alcoholic drinks (tinctures, liqueurs, liqueurs, punches, balms, etc.), a mixture of various alcoholized juices, fruit drinks, infusions and aromatic alcohols obtained by processing fruit and berry and aromatic plant raw materials with adding sugar syrup, essential oils, grape wines, cognac, citric acid and other food products, as well as alcohol and water.

A mixture of alcoholized juices, fruit drinks obtained by processing fruit and berry raw materials with the addition of sugar syrup, port wine, cognac, alcohol, citric acid and water is called tincture (for example, mint, anise, pepper, etc. There are tinctures:

* sweet (strength 16...24% vol., sugar content 9.5...10.0 g/100 ml);

* semi-sweet (strength 30...40% vol., sugar content 9.5...10.0 g/100 ml);

* low-grade sweet (strength 12...28% vol., sugar content 4.5...8.0 g/100 ml).

The group of bitters includes rum, whiskey and gin.

Rum is a strong alcoholic drink made from rum alcohol, which is obtained by fermentation and subsequent distillation of juice or molasses (sugar cane processing waste) by fermenting them. The resulting rum alcohol is diluted with distilled water to the required strength (45% vol. in the CIS), up to 1% sugar is added to the solution, the resulting mixture is tinted with burnt sugar and poured into oak barrels, in which it is aged for at least four years.

Whiskey is a strong alcoholic drink produced by distilling fermented wort made from rye, corn and dry barley malt, followed by aging for 3...10 years in charred oak barrels.

Gin is a type of strong alcoholic drink from the group of juniper vodkas, prepared by distilling rectified ethyl alcohol (England, Scotland, USA), raw malt alcohol (Holland) with dried juniper berries and adding, depending on the brand of gin, various spices that add taste and smell. In Russia, gin is prepared by blending (mixing) juniper berry alcohol, rectified ethyl alcohol and distilled water to a strength of 45% vol.

Liqueur is a strong, spicy alcoholic drink obtained by mixing rectified ethyl alcohol, sugar syrup and fruit or plant essences (juices). For Va-hep liqueurs, the strength is 20.0% vol.

Liqueurs are a mixture of alcoholized fruit and berry juices with rectified alcohol and sugar. The strength of liqueurs is 18...20% vol., sugar content is 28...40%.

Cognac (GOST 13741-78) is an original strong alcoholic drink of amber-golden color with a specific bouquet and taste. To make cognacs, cognac alcohol is used, obtained by fractional distillation of grape wines, followed by aging in oak barrels for three to 15 years. Fractional distillation can be single, with the selection of the middle fraction of cognac alcohol, or double. In the latter case, first, using simple distillation, raw alcohol with a strength of 23...30% vol. is obtained, from which cognac alcohol is obtained as a result of fractional distillation. The composition (blend) of cognacs includes several batches of cognac spirits, which are mixed in different proportions to obtain a richer taste and aroma. The batches and composition of alcohols for the blend are selected by tasters.

Depending on the quality, cognacs are divided into ordinary and vintage.

The following brands of cognac are considered ordinary:

* “three stars” with a strength of 40.0% vol., made from cognac spirits aged for at least three years;

* “four stars” with a strength of 41.0% vol., made from cognac spirits aged for at least four years;

* “five stars” with a strength of 42.0% vol., made from cognac spirits aged for at least five years.

A separate group of ordinary cognacs consists of special brand cognacs (40.0% vol. strength, sugar content 7...15 g/dm3), made from cognac spirits aged for at least four years.

In addition to cognac alcohol, the blend of ordinary cognacs includes distilled or softened water, sugar syrup, alcoholized waters and color.

Vintage cognacs are called higher quality cognacs, which contain alcohols that have been aged for at least six years. Vintage cognacs have their own names and are divided into the following groups:

* aged cognacs “KB”, strength 42% vol., sugar content 7...12 g/dm3, made from cognac spirits aged for at least six years;

* aged cognacs of the highest quality “KVVK”, strength 40...45% vol., sugar content 7...12 g/dm3, made from cognac spirits aged for at least eight years;

* old cognacs “KS”, strength 4057% vol., sugar content 7...20 g/dm3, made from cognac spirits aged for at least 10 years.

Danilov Yu.N., Ilyushin M.A., Tselinsky I.V. Industrial explosives Part 1. Initiating explosives. Text of lectures (Document)

Fedorchenko I.M., Frantsevich I.N., Radomyselsky I.D. and others. Powder metallurgy. Materials, technology, properties, applications (Document)

Kursovoy - Chemically hazardous objects of the Russian Federation, and accidents at them (5) (Kursovy)

Filiptsova G.G. Fundamentals of biochemistry. Course of lectures (Document)

Gul V.E., Shenfil L.3. Electrically conductive polymer compositions (Document)

Buslov V.A., Yakovlev S.L. Numerical Methods: Function Investigation 1 (Document)

Budnitsky Yu.M., Koldashov V.N., Vyalkova O.V. Composite materials (Document)

Mochalov I.V. Growing optical crystals. Lecture notes. Part 1 (Document)

Dmitriev V.A. Control Systems Research (Document)

Moiseeva L.A. History of Civilizations (Document)

n1.doc

3. Examination of alcohol-containing liquids.

The examination of alcohol-containing liquids is most often appointed during the investigation of cases related to the production and sale of home-made strong alcoholic beverages, in connection with theft and mis-grading of industrially produced wine and vodka products, etc.

The subject of this type of examination is the establishment of factual data about the crime event, established on the basis of special knowledge in the field of forensic examination, chemistry and technology for the production of alcohol-containing liquids and methods for their research.

The objects of examination of the SJ are:

Specific individually defined volumes of various
types of alcoholic beverages, homemade and industrial
combustion, as well as SSZh for technical purposes, including
mixtures with liquids of a different nature;

Traces of SSF for various purposes, distributed in the mass or located on the surface of various carrier objects;

Various designs used to produce SSG cous
in a container way.

When conducting an expert study of SSJ, we are mainly talking about alcoholic beverages, because... during an expert study of medicinal tinctures based on alcohol, perfumes and some alcohol-containing technical or household liquids, alcohol is a solvent, and the components contained in it have informational significance.

Typical tasks.

1. 
   Attribution of a specific SSG to a specific type of alcohol
   factory-made drink (wine, vodka, cognac, etc.) or type
   Homemade SSG (moonshine, mash, wine).
2. 
   Determining the ownership of a given type of alcoholic drink
   to a specific brand.
3. 
   Establishing the nature of the liquid (traces) in order to attribute it
   (them) to alcohol-containing ones.
4. 
   Establishment of the common generic affiliation of several SJs
   (referring to a general type or to a single brand of alcoholic beverage).
5. 
   Establishing a common group affiliation of those being compared
   CVS according to characteristics not provided for by the classification of this group
   yes, but arising during manufacture, storage or other circumstances
   conditions of the existence of objects (features of capping, pasting, composition
   va SSZh, belonging to the general blend).

1. 
   Identification of production sources of origin
   SJ: specific or general.
2. 
   Identification of a whole volume by parts separated from it
   (volumes).
3. 
   Detection of traces of CVS on various carrier objects,
   from which biological materials are excluded: organs and tissue
   neither humans nor animals and their waste products.
4. 
   Establishing the method of manufacturing SSG: factory-made or custom-made
   container

10. Establishing the type of raw material.

11. Establishing the compliance of an alcoholic drink with a specific
brands according to GOST standards or medical and biological requirements. "

1. 
   Establishing the belonging of devices (parts) to devices
   (their structural units) for the production of strong alcoholic beverages
   cov.
2. 
   Establishing the fact of using devices (parts) for you
   processing of alcoholic beverages.

Based on the objects of research, examinations of this kind are divided into types and subtypes.

View. Examination of home-made alcoholic beverages. Subspecies. Brag examination. Subspecies. Examination of moonshine.

Subspecies. Examination of other artisanal alcohol-containing drinks.

View. Examination of alcohol-containing liquids and industrial drinks.

Subspecies. Examination of alcohols. Subspecies. Expertise of vodkas. Subspecies. Wine expertise. Subspecies. Expertise of liqueurs. Subspecies. Expertise of cognacs.

Subspecies. Examination of other industrially produced drinks.

Questions of the examination of the SJ.

It is advisable to ask the following questions to resolve the examination of the SJ:

diagnostic character

• 
  Is the liquid presented containing alcohol?
  What species does it belong to and what is its strength?
• 
  Are there any traces of SSG on (the) presented objects, if
  exists, then what type (type, brand) does it belong to?

• 
  How is this liquid made?

- Does this liquid correspond to a certain type of wine -

Vodka products?

Is the presented apparatus (device) suitable for
material for making alcoholic beverages?

identification character

Does the liquid that formed the marks on the object have
share a common generic, group affiliation with the Jews
bone submitted for research?

Did the liquids found in different areas constitute a single volume?

Capacities?

Resolving the issue of adulteration of industrially produced alcoholic beverages is beyond the competence of the expert and relates to the task of the investigation and the court. The expert resolves the issue only of the compliance of the alcoholic beverages with a certain type of wine and vodka products.

It is not recommended to formulate questions about the sameness or similarity of objects in chemical composition, because in relation to SSF, it is practically impossible; in addition, it is not necessary to determine all the chemical compounds contained in the test liquid. The assignment of SSG to a certain genus, species, or type is carried out on the basis of the most characteristic components of SSG, characterizing their particular composition.

4. More modern possibilities for expert research of alcohol-containing liquids.

Rectified ethyl alcohol (food grade) and rectified technical ethyl alcohol are differentiated by the content of volatile components determined by GLC: food grade alcohol has a peak

Methanol and two minor (trace amounts) acetaldehyde and ethyl acetate (less than 0.001%)

Technical alcohol additionally has peaks (trace amounts) of n-propanol and isobutanol.

Vodka can be distinguished from alcohol solutions when determining hardness - tap or boiled water has a calcium content three times higher than that of water for vodka.

They are differentiated by three quantitative characteristics: the content of ethanol, methanol and alkalinity, and by one qualitative one - the content (whether present or not) of sugar according to the Selivanov reaction (resorcinol + HC1).

Expert research SSG is carried out using microscopy, spectrophotometer and UV-visible spectral methods, GLC and TLC, emission spectral analysis.

The following can be considered special research methods.

Organoleptic examination - smell, color, transparency (BUT not taste - this is only possible at enterprises with tasters who know for sure that they are dealing with liquids that are safe for health).

Determination of ethyl alcohol content in liquids by distillation method.

Determination of sugar content- Selivanov's reaction (resorcinol-K NSZ) - qualitative, Antronovsky method according to GOST - quantitative. Determination of organic acids- by TLC method Determination of falsification and differentiation of cognacs by quantitative tannin content and absorption spectra.

Literature

1. 
   Avakayan A. B. Change in strength and volume of small quantities
   vodka as it ages in open containers. On Sat. Expert
   practice and new research methods. Issue 8. ~ M.: VNIISE, 1986.
2. 
   Kobulashvili L.L., Sartania V.G. etc. Identification of differentiation
   identifying characteristics of cognacs using gas-liquid chromatography.
   On Sat. Expert practice and new research methods. Issue, 18. -
   M.: VNIISE, 1989.

1. 
   Koziner E.D., Puchkova T.M. etc. Expert research about
   industrial alcohols and vodkas. On Sat. Expert practice and new methods
   dy research. Issue 12. - M.: VNIISE, 1993.
2. 
   Koziner E.D., Puchkova T.M., Kobulashvili L.L. Scheme expert
   extensive research of cognacs of various brands and regions of production
   stva. Right there.
3. 
   Mitrichev V.S., Khrustalev V.N. Fundamentals of Forensics
   research of materials, substances and products made from them. - St. Petersburg: Peter,
   2003. "
4. 
   Moiseeva T.F., Firova L.A. Differentiation of cognacs according to
   retention of tannins. On Sat. Expert practice and new research methods
   dovaniya. Issue 12. - M.: VNIISE, 1993.
5. 
   Puchkova T.M., Moiseeva T.F. etc. Comprehensive research
   alcohol-containing liquids (alcoholic beverages) homemade
   boots. Methodological letter for experts. - M.: VNIISE, 1993
6. 
   Russian E.R. Forensic examination in criminal, civil,
   arbitration process. - M.: Law and Law, 1996.
7. 
   Dictionary of special terms of forensic science
   PS SS. -M.: RFTSSE, 1995

Lecture 8. Forensic research of metals, alloys and products made from them.

Questions.

1. 
   The concept of metals, alloys and products made from them, their properties
   signs.
2. 
   Detection, fixation, seizure and preliminary investigation
   research of metals, alloys and products made from them.
3. 
   Examination of metals, alloys and products made from them.
4. 
   Modern opportunities for expert research
   fishing, alloys and products made from them.
5. 
   Restoring deleted relief images on metals
   and alloys.

1. The concept of metals, alloys and products made from them, their properties and characteristics.

When investigating crimes, products made of metals and alloys are both objects of criminal attack (for example, jewelry, antiques, as well as any products of non-ferrous and ferrous metals) and instruments of crime (weapons and their elements, crowbars, master keys). Metal particles (for example, shavings, sawdust found at a crime scene), wires from a fire scene can carry information about the mechanism of a crime. Traces of metallization on clothing may indicate involvement in a crime.

Objects forensic examination of metals, alloys and products made from them: objects made of metal (alloy) or with metal coatings, their parts and microparticles, objects with traces of metallization.

Metals - These are simple substances with characteristic properties: high thermal and electrical conductivity, strength, shine, opacity even in thin films, malleability, heat resistance, which are due to the presence of a large number of freely moving electrons in their crystal lattice.

According to their properties, metals are divided into:

Lightweight (aluminum, titanium, beryllium, lithium, potassium, etc.);

• 
  heavy (lead, bismuth, mercury, antimony, etc.);
• 
  refractory (tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, etc.);
• 
  noble or precious (gold, silver, platinum, palla
  dium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium, iridium);
• 
  radioactive (uranium, radium, francium, actinium and actinides);
  scattered (gallium, indium, thallium);
• 
  magnetic (iron, nickel, cobalt);

- rare earths (scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and lanthanides).
Alloys - solid crystalline bodies consisting of 2 or more

Metals and non-metals.

Alloying element - a chemical element (most often a metal) specially introduced into the composition of metal alloys to change their structure and impart certain physical, chemical or mechanical properties. Establishing the quantitative content of alloying elements makes it possible to differentiate alloys by grade

Alloys are divided into:

- black(iron and its alloys: steel - contains less than 2% carbon and cast iron - contains more than 2% carbon);

• 
  colored(all others are not iron): aluminum- duralumin
  mini; copper: bronze - contain one as an alloying agent.
  or several elements - aluminum, lead, tin, titanium,
  silicon, phosphorus, etc.; brass - contain zinc, etc.);
• 
  precious(gold, silver, platinum, etc.). Jewelry
  lia contain samples - amount of precious metal in alloy
  ve, expressed in parts by weight (the number of grams in 1000 g of alloy).
  Silver - 6 samples: most often 875 or 925; gold - 375, 500, 583,
  750, 958; platinum - 950, palladium - 850.

Corrosion of metals and alloys - destruction as a result of chemical or electrochemical interaction with a corrosive environment. There are atmospheric and underground corrosion, gas and liquid, chemical and electrochemical, etc. By the nature of corrosion, one can judge the aggressive environment for a given material, and by the degree of corrosion, one can judge how long ago it has interacted with the aggressive environment.

Metals and alloys are obtained through the smelting process.

Fuse metals and alloys - a separate one-time cycle of the melting process, as well as the resulting product. Total

The number of products from one melt forms a group of objects for examination of metals and alloys.

The process of joining metals and alloys in a solid state is called soldering, which is carried out using solder (molten material) having a melting point less than the melting point of the base metal.

Solder - metal or alloy used in soldering to fill the gap between the surfaces being joined in order to obtain a monolithic solder seam. The type and brand of solder is determined using emission spectral analysis, X-ray spectral or chemical analysis.

The process of permanently joining metals and alloys using local heating until melting or joint plastic deformation of the welded parts is called welding

Semi-finished metal - a product that has undergone one or several stages of processing (drawing, stamping, forging, etc.) is found in expert studies in the form of sheets, strips, wire, and metal of various profiles.

Wire - a metal product of long length with a cross-section of relatively small diameter, intended for the manufacture of wires, ropes, meshes, nails, for packaging, etc.

One of the types of expert research is the study of traces of metallization on objects.

Metallization

1. 
   Technological process for applying coatings of metals or
   alloys onto the surface of products made from various materials in a thin layer
   I eat to obtain certain properties (corrosion protection, increased
   wear resistance, decorative, etc.)
2. 
   Contact process in which the transfer of time occurs
   metal onto the trace-receiving surface.

Signs of metals, alloys: color, gloss, structure, surface structure, hardness, elongation and contraction, tensile strength and yield, impact strength, density, thermal, magnetic, electrical properties.

Features of products from metals and alloys: signs of metals, alloys and additional ones - shape, size, signs of intended purpose, signs of external influence (mechanical, thermal, environment).

2. Detection, fixation, seizure and preliminary examination of metals, alloys and products made from them.

The general rules for detecting, fixing, seizing and packaging objects are similar to those used for other KIWMI objects. Features are as follows:

1. 
   Ferromagnetic properties allow detection and removal of
   microparticles of metals and alloys using magnets.
2. 
   For detection and removal of microparticles from precious metals
   Fishing is done by rinsing with a cotton swab and ethyl alcohol.
3. 
   Traces of metallization can only be detected in laboratory
   conditions using the diffusion-contact method.

Preliminary research of metal alloys and products of them.

Preliminary research of metals and alloys is carried out to establish the following;

• 
  Are there metal particles on this object?
• 
  Are the particles ferrous or non-ferrous metal (alloy)?

• 
  What metal is the object formed from?
• 
  What is the mechanism of formation of metal (alloy) particles?

- Probable source of origin?

At the preliminary research stage, the following characteristic characteristics are studied: propertiesand signs:

• 
  shine - using a light source and a magnifying glass;
• 
  color - visually;

• 
  hardness, elasticity - with using a dissecting needle and tweezers;
• 
  magnetic properties - magnetic device through white paper;

- particle morphology - microscopic examination: spherical
different and drop-shaped particles during gas and electric welding; odds
ma of sawdust depends on the tool

- Chemical properties - 1) 30% alkali solution (sodium hydroxy-
yes) causes the release of gas (dissolution) of aluminum and its alloys; 2)

A dilute solution of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid causes the evolution of hydrogen from iron alloys; 3) dilute nitric acid leads to the release of brown gas from copper alloys. If these reactions do not take place, then the metal (alloy) is based on magnesium or noble metals.

After preliminary examination, objects are sent for examination of metals, alloys and products made from them.

3. Examination of metals, alloys and products made from them.

The subject of forensic examination of metals, alloys and products made from them is actual data (facts, circumstances), established on the basis of special knowledge in the field of forensic examination,

Metallurgy and other technical sciences.

Typical tasks

1. 
   Establishment of common generic (group) affiliation
   objects made of metal.
2. 
   Establishing the common source of origin of the compared
   metal objects.
3. 
   Establishment of specifically defined sets of products from
   metals
4. 
   Establishing the identity of parts (microparticles) of metals and
   alloys into a single whole.
5. 
   Establishing the fact of contact interaction of objects from
   metal
6. 
   Detection of microparticles and traces of metals, as well as determination of
   understanding the properties and type of metal from which the object is made.
7. 
   Determination of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of morpho
   logy, chemical composition, structure, manufacturing technology
   metal projects.
8. 
   Establishment of the phenomenon of causal-temporal and functional
   connections based on the study of metal objects.

Objects are objects made of metal (alloy), their parts and microparticles, traces of metallization. The most common are steel products and their preparations (knives, daggers, etc.), parts of products

Liy made of metals (fragments of explosive devices, parts of destroyed vehicle parts, etc.), products made of precious metals (crowns, rings, etc.), products and their parts made of non-ferrous metals, wire, etc. This type of examination includes the following types and subtypes. View. Examination of traces of metallization.

Subspecies. Investigation of traces of metallization of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys.

Subspecies. Study of traces of metallization of noble metals and alloys. View. Examination of microparticles of metals and alloys.

Subspecies. Study of microparticles of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys. Subspecies. Study of microparticles of noble metals and

Alloys.

View. Examination of products made of metals and alloys (parts of a whole). Subspecies. Research of products made of ferrous and non-ferrous metals

And alloys. Subspecies. Research of products made of precious metals and

Alloys. View. Examination of the duration of damage and destruction of products made of

Metals and alloys.

Questions posed for resolution by the examination.

When deciding diagnostic tasks the expert may be asked the following questions:

And are there any metal particles on the presented objects? Ka
What is their composition and purpose?

• 
  What metal (alloy) are the presented products made of?
• 
  Does the item presented have a metal coating?
  ie? What is its composition and purpose?
• 
  Are there any traces of metallization on the presented items?
  What object (shape, size) forms traces of metallization?
  tions? What is the mechanism of trace formation?

- What is the manufacturing method for this product?

What are the causes and mechanism of destruction of metal before
meta?

• 
  What kind of exposure has this metal product been exposed to?
  lie (thermal, oxidation)?
• 
  What is the source of origin of this metal (alloy), me
  metal product (deposit, metallurgical lump
  binat, product manufacturer, etc.)?

Questions identification character:

Do they have a common group affiliation (in terms of metal composition
la or alloy, according to the characteristics of manufacture and operation) metal
personal products or their fragments with the presented comparative
with our samples?

Is this metal fragment part of this product? Do the presented objects belong to a single whole? Is the object made from a specific metal object?

Do the metal objects being compared have a single source?
nickname of origin (field, manufacturer, batch, unit
mass - native gold and gold particles on the scales)?

4. Modern possibilities for expert research of metals, alloys and products made from them.

Products made of metals and alloys are characterized by external morphology, internal structure, elemental and phase composition, and a complex of physical and mechanical properties of the material. This also determines a set of methods for their study: scanning and transmission electron microscopy, local X-ray spectral and X-ray phase analysis, emission and atomic absorption spectral analysis, laser microspectral analysis.

Special methods of this type of examination are the following.

Metallography is based on the study of the features of the microstructure of the surface of polished sections of metals and alloys, determined by physical properties, structure (structure), as well as processing technology. Used to differentiate and identify products made of metals and alloys, establish the method of manufacturing parts, and traces of thermal effects.

Fractography - a type of metallography, surface examination without polishing or etching. Allows for fracture structure

For steel and cast iron products, establish the cause, process and time of destruction of the part.

To solve the problem of establishing the fact of contact interaction of metal objects, as well as establishing the whole from its parts and the source of origin of metal products, it is necessary to conduct complex studies with the participation of specialists of other classes, types and types of examinations (traceological, explosive, ballistic, automotive, etc. )

Successful examination of metals, alloys and products made from them, and the correct preparation of materials for their implementation, largely depends on the specific formulation of the research problem. The expert must have maximum technical information about the manufacturing features (raw materials used in smelting, technology, tools for manufacturing), storage and operation. To identify an identification set of characteristics, it is often necessary to submit free samples for conducting model experiments (for example, determining changes in the structure of a metal under the influence of high temperature).

5. Restoration of deleted relief images on metals and alloys 1.

Products subject to marking: jewelry, coins and award signs, but the most common objects of examination are markings on cars.

Marking - process of applying relief marks.

Marking - a set of relief signs of an original design, applied by any technical method to the surface of a component or product.

Features of marking of metal products - parts and assemblies of motor vehicles, places of marking, fonts and signs used.

1 Forensic research of materials, substances and products: Course of lectures / Ed. A. V. Kochubey. - Volgograd: VA Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, 2002. -10

Raised identification markings are applied to vehicles during final assembly. There are many options for digital and alphabetic, symbolic designations and their combinations, located in different places of the product. There are identification numbers on the body, engine and nameplates.

The very fact that the markings do not correspond to the data specified in the documents for the car, their change is carried out within the framework of a comprehensive examination - automotive technical, traceological, commodity research, technical and forensic examination of documents and examination for the restoration of deleted relief images.

Methods and methods of applying markings to products.

Relief marks are applied to the working surfaces of the body panel, frame spar and marking areas of cylinder blocks and crankcases both before and after priming and painting in the following ways:

• 
  branding the working surface with a set of stamps (before or after
  coloring);
• 
  exposure to a cutter (after painting);
• 
  using cores (needles) - punches (after painting); - this is sa
  mine is common for domestic cars.

- exposure to laser beams

At the factory, the application process is carried out using manual, mechanized or combined methods.

Manual method - sequential application of images of elements by hitting the stamp with a hammer. Signs: signs are shifted horizontally and vertically, the distance between signs is not the same. At VAZ they use a template when applying the engine number - the depth of the characters is not the same.

Mechanized method - impact and knurling. A microscopic examination shows that the working part of the mark moves strictly vertically, and when knurling, there are traces of entry on one side and exit on the other side of the mark. “Underfilling” is possible (especially on aluminum blocks), as a result of which the signs or part of them may be smaller in size. Finishing is done either manually, and it appears

Signs, or repeated mechanized action, and double outlines appear with the same shift of signs.

Combined method - some of the signs are mechanized, and some are manual (ZAZ, LuAZ)

Obviously, it is incorrect to draw a conclusion about a change in markings only on the basis of differences in font configuration. More stable features are the height of the font and the distance between the dividing asterisks or extreme characters in the marking (with a mechanized method it can vary within 1 mm).

Methods and signs of changes in body markings.

Methods for changing body markings can be divided into two large groups: without destroying the primary marking and with destroying the primary marking.

1. Methods of changing the configuration of markings without destroying the primary marking (it is fundamentally possible to identify it):

Completion of missing elements of signs (3-5, 1-4, 5-6);

Printing secondary markings on top of the primary marking
peeling the primary marking area, applying a layer of metal
la or plastic mass, embossing a secondary brand on it
cutting, caulking of individual characters and application in their place
others, excess elements are melted.

2. Methods involving the destruction of primary markings

Removing the marking panel or part of it and replacing it with another;

Explicit signs of changes in the primary identification markings ki monocoque body:

Presence of less than 17 identification marks;

Absence of relief elements on the marking area,
identification marks bounding on both sides
picks;

Deviation from the conventional vertical line, displacement from
proper position of the relief stylized outline

Elements of emblems limiting identification markings;

• 
  discrepancy between marking signs and reverse mapping
  panel side;
• 
  the presence of distortions in the relationship of individual stylized elements
  bathroom emblems, limit signs or changes in propority
  tions of the relationship of individual elements;

• 
  the presence of obvious traces of dismantling the marked body panel;

• 
  difference in shades of color of painted body panels in zones
  adjacent to the marking panel;
• 
  presence of significant differences (over 0.1mm) in the thickness of foxes
  that marking panel;
• 
  the presence of traces of masking the heterogeneity of the marked panel;
  or substances not used by the manufacturer.

Methods and signs of engine marking changes.

There are three way to change engine markings.

1. 
   Destruction of primary markings by removing a layer
   metal and new markings.
2. 
   Hammering (caulking) the primary marking with the subsequent one
   by filling in the required signs.
3. 
   Destruction of signs of primary marking of cylinder blocks,
   made of aluminum alloys, thermally exposed to
   marking area (blowtorches, gas torches, etc.).

Signs of change:

• 
  traces of mechanical processing of sites;
• 
  traces of primary markings;

• 
  difference in the surface texture of the site from the adjacent areas
  kov or factory sample;
• 
  absence of a layer of enamel or special composition on the marking plate]
  spades (for blocks of aluminum and magnesium alloys).

In some imported cars, the engine number is on a plate installed on the marking area of ​​the cylinder block. Removal and installation of new signs is possible without leaving any traces.

Introduction

forensic alcohol liquid

Relevance of the topic. The current stage of development of our society is characterized by radical economic reforms and democratization of society. The process of creating a rule-of-law state is accompanied not only by positive, but also by negative social phenomena, some of which are inflation, unemployment, falling living standards, increased crime, etc., which essentially hinder the development of reforms. The growth of crime, especially such serious manifestations as terrorism, extremism, murder, robbery, and robbery contributes to the growth of social tension, which creates favorable conditions for the emergence of various forms of organized crime.

Practice convincingly shows that the effectiveness of law enforcement activities and such an important area as the fight against crime largely depends on the quality of the means and methods of this activity, modern capabilities for identifying and solving crimes, and the armament of the bodies performing the functions of criminal prosecution. The more perfect these means and methods are, i.e. The more they use the latest technologies, the more effectively they solve the problems of preventing and solving crimes. Therefore, one of the main directions for further improving the theory and practice of fighting crime should be the widespread use of scientific and technological progress.

The statistical detection of certain types of crimes by the criminal police in 2009 was 41.4 percent, which is 8.2 percent higher than in the same period last year. This happened thanks to the detection of crimes such as the use, storage and illegal trafficking of narcotic drugs. There was an increase in attempted murders (by 1.5 percent), cases of taking vehicles without the intent of theft (by 21.5 percent) and drug addiction crimes (excluding Article 259 Part 1 - by 20.6 percent).

In connection with the trend observed in recent years to reduce the role of personal evidence, i.e. testimony of all categories of persons participating in the investigation, associated with the frequent refusal in court of testimony given during the investigation, the importance of material evidence has increased significantly.

The need for constant development and improvement of forensic examinations, determined by the demands of investigative and judicial practice, requires expanding the range of objects and introducing modern research methods. Such trends are most typical for forensic examination of materials and substances.

Identification and recording by modern technical means of signs and traces of criminal actions, their study on the basis of special scientific knowledge, the subsequent use of the findings in the course of proving the guilt of specific individuals in the process of criminal investigations greatly facilitate the achievement of the main objectives of criminal proceedings.

The purpose of this course work is to study the forensic study of alcohol-containing substances.

Based on the purpose of the course work, the following tasks are set:

give a general description of the terminology and classification of alcohol-containing substances;

highlight the features of collecting and preliminary research of alcohol-containing substances;

and also reveal methods and technical means of expert research of spiro-containing substances.

Work structure. The course work consists of an introduction, three chapters with subparagraphs, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. Terminology and classification of alcohol-containing liquids

.1 General concept of alcohol-containing substances

When solving these problems, it is often necessary to establish the fact of dilution of a drink, partial or complete replacement of an expensive alcoholic drink with a cheap one, the fact that such a drink belongs to a certain type, type, brand, batch of production. If identifying the fact of dilution is not particularly difficult, then detecting the replacement of an alcoholic drink with another or establishing the nature of the original and added alcohol-containing liquid requires qualified research.

As an analysis of expert and investigative practice shows, one of the main ways of falsifying alcoholic beverages, in particular vodka, is the substitution of food grade ethyl alcohol with technical (hydrolysis) or synthetic ethyl alcohol, prohibited for consumption for food purposes, as well as the use of poorly purified food grade alcohol.

Counterfeiting of alcoholic products (wines, cognacs, vodkas, etc.) can occur with the participation of industrially produced ingredients (alcohol, essences, etc.), bottling, capping and packaging of which take place in non-factory conditions. The production of certain products, including moonshine, can be done at home.

The objects of research are: closures (caps, plugs, etc.); special stamps, labels, seals and stamps on them; contents of the bottle.

The contents of containers are examined by forensic materials scientists specializing in the field of forensic studies of alcohol-containing liquids.

1.2 Classification of alcohol-containing liquids

Classification of alcoholic beverages and their characteristics. Ethyl alcohols are divided into three large groups: food, technical and synthetic.

Edible alcohols are obtained mainly from starch-containing raw materials: grain crops, potatoes, beets and molasses sugar beet production waste. It is also possible to obtain edible ethyl alcohol from grapes in the production of cognac, and from apples in the production of Calvados apple alcohol.

The raw materials for industrial alcohols are waste from sulfite-cellulose production and wood hydrolysis products.

Synthetic ethyl alcohols are produced from natural gases containing ethylene and associated gases obtained during oil refining.

The technological process for producing edible ethyl alcohol from starch-containing raw materials includes the following main stages:

boiling potatoes or grains in water to disrupt the cellular structure and dissolve starch;

cooling of the boiled mass and saccharification of starch with enzymes of malt (sprouted grain) or mold cultures. During saccharification, starch is partially converted into maltose and glucose, easily fermented by yeast, and proteins are decomposed into peptides and amino acids suitable for feeding yeast;

fermentation of sugars by yeast into alcohol. The resulting mash (fermenting wort) is a complex multicomponent system consisting of water (82...90%), dry substances (4...10%) and ethyl alcohol with accompanying volatile impurities (5...8%). Volatile impurities are alcohols, aldehydes, acids, and ethers. Their total content does not exceed 0.5% ethyl alcohol content. In this case, the largest amount of impurities falls on the share of methyl, propyl, isobutyl, and isoamyl alcohols. The last three alcohols form the basis of fusel oil;

distillation of alcohol from mash and its rectification. The fermented solution containing 8.5...9% alcohol is sent for distillation, which is the separation of ethyl alcohol from the mature mash along with the volatile impurities it contains. The content of the latter is about 0.5%. As a result of the distillation of alcohol, raw alcohol is obtained in distillation apparatuses, and rectified alcohol is obtained in distillation apparatuses.

All alcoholic drinks and alcohol-containing liquids are classified according to two bases: production method;

strength, or volumetric content of ethyl alcohol.

According to the method of production, alcohol-containing liquids are divided into those made at home, home-made, and factory-made, factory-made.

Based on strength, alcoholic drinks are divided into the following groups:

low alcohol, ethyl alcohol content 515% vol.;

Low-alcohol drinks include mash, various wines, the content of ethyl alcohol in which does not exceed the specified values. Strong alcoholic drinks include moonshine, strong and dessert wines, vodka, rum, cognac, etc.

Homemade alcohol-containing liquids mainly include the following.

Mash is made by fermenting any carbohydrate-containing raw materials (sugar, beets, potatoes, grain crops, animal feed, berries, etc.) with baker's or brewer's yeast.

Moonshine is a strong alcoholic beverage produced by distilling a fermented substrate (mash) using an artisanal method.

Their strength ranges from 30 to 60%. These types of alcoholic drinks are sometimes infused with aromatic products (orange, lemon peels, nutmeg, etc.), and various fruit essences are added, which complicates their diagnosis.

In addition to those indicated at home, the following can be produced:

wines from fruits and berries. Wines are distinguished from other alcohol-containing liquids by their characteristic delicate taste and aroma, and other organoleptic characteristics (color, transparency, absence of sediment);

cider - a low-alcohol carbonated drink (5...7% alcohol by volume), obtained as a result of fermentation of apple juice;

beer - a low-alcohol sparkling drink with a characteristic hop aroma, containing varying amounts of alcohol (1.5...7% vol.), obtained by alcoholic fermentation of wort from barley malt with the obligatory addition of hops;

kvass (strength 1...2% vol.) - a refreshing drink made from a mixture of rye and barley malt, rye flour or rye crackers, sugar and water, followed by alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation.

The following types of alcoholic beverages are produced in factories. Depending on the raw materials, wines are divided into grape (GOST 7208-84) and fruit and berry (GOST 17292-83).

Grape wine is a drink obtained as a result of alcoholic fermentation of grape must or pulp of fresh or dried grapes.

In accordance with the classification, wines are divided into varietal wines, produced from one grape variety, and blends, prepared from several grape varieties.

Depending on the alcohol and sugar content, grape wines are divided into:

natural dry, special dry, semi-dry and semi-sweet;

special dry, strong, semi-dessert, dessert and liqueur.

Dry wines are wines obtained by complete fermentation of grape must or pulp.

Semi-dry, semi-sweet and sweet wines are wines obtained by complete fermentation of grape must or pulp with the addition of sugar or concentrated grape must.

Strong, semi-dessert and dessert wines - wines obtained by complete or incomplete fermentation of grapes

must or pulp with the addition of ethyl alcohol, sugar, concentrated grape must or mistelle.

Natural and special wines can be flavored, i.e. containing infusions of aromatic herbs and roots.

Based on the carbon dioxide content, there are still, sparkling wines (carbonated “Cider”, “Salyut”), obtained by physically saturating the processed wine material with carbon dioxide, and sparkling wines, saturated with carbon dioxide during the secondary fermentation of dry, unfermented wine materials with the addition of liqueur or sugar, obtained by fermenting grape must in sealed containers. These include wines such as “Champagne” and “Donskoye”.

Depending on the quality and aging period, wines are divided into young, unaged, aged, vintage and collection.

A separate group consists of sparkling wines saturated with carbon dioxide through the natural method of secondary fermentation in hermetically sealed bottles. The increased carbon dioxide content in champagne causes the wine to foam and “play.” Champagne is characterized by a specific taste and bouquet that develops during the process of secondary fermentation.

In addition to the above classifications, it is necessary to point out that grape wines are divided into three groups based on color: white, pink and red.

In addition to grapes, various fruits (apples, pears, plums, etc.) can serve as raw materials for making wines. Wines made by alcoholic fermentation of sugared juice of fresh fruits or sugared juice obtained from pre-fermented fruit pulp are called fruit and berry wines. They are divided into varietals, made from the juice of one type of fruit, and blends, produced from a regulated mixture of juices of various fruits.

Depending on the preparation technology, fruit wines are divided into the following groups:

dry, prepared by complete fermentation of juice;

semi-dry, semi-sweet and sweet, prepared by additional sugaring of dry wine materials;

dessert varietals, prepared by fermenting the juice of one type of fruit (except apples) and then bringing it to the required concentration by adding ethyl alcohol and sugar;

special technology, prepared by fermenting apple juice using special technological techniques that give the wine characteristic organoleptic properties;

effervescent, prepared by physically saturating wine materials obtained by fermentation of fruit juice with carbon dioxide;

Vodka (GOST 12712-80) is a strong alcoholic drink, which is a mixture of specially prepared softened water (hardness up to 1 mEq/l) and rectified ethyl alcohol (GOST 5962-67). The alcohol content in vodka can be 40.0...45.0; 50.0 or 56.0% vol. In the process of preparing vodka, the water-alcohol mixture is passed through activated carbon. In appearance, vodka is always colorless and transparent. Some types of vodka add a small amount of impurities (soda, sugar, etc.). A separate group consists of special high-grade vodkas with a strength of 40.0...45.0% vol. with an emphatically specific aroma and taste obtained through the introduction of certain aromatic components.

Liqueurs (GOST 7190) - a group of alcoholic drinks (tinctures, liqueurs, liqueurs, punches, balms, etc.), a mixture of various alcoholized juices, fruit drinks, infusions and aromatic alcohols obtained by processing fruit and berry and aromatic plant raw materials with adding sugar syrup, essential oils, grape wines, cognac, citric acid and other food products, as well as alcohol and water.

A mixture of alcoholized juices, fruit drinks obtained by processing fruit and berry raw materials with the addition of sugar syrup, port wine, cognac, alcohol, citric acid and water is called tincture (for example, mint, anise, pepper, etc. There are tinctures:

sweet (strength 16...24% vol., sugar content 9.5...10.0 g/100 ml);

semi-sweet (strength 30...40% vol., sugar content 9.5...10.0 g/100 ml);

sweet low-proof (strength 12...28% vol., sugar content 4.5...8.0 g/100 ml).

The group of bitters includes rum, whiskey and gin.

Rum is a strong alcoholic drink made from rum alcohol, which is obtained by fermentation and subsequent distillation of juice or molasses (sugar cane processing waste) by fermenting them. The resulting rum alcohol is diluted with distilled water to the required strength (45% vol. in the CIS), up to 1% sugar is added to the solution, the resulting mixture is tinted with burnt sugar and poured into oak barrels, in which it is aged for at least four years.

Whiskey is a strong alcoholic drink produced by distilling fermented wort made from rye, corn and dry barley malt, followed by aging for 3...10 years in charred oak barrels.

Gin is a type of strong alcoholic drink from the group of juniper vodkas, prepared by distilling rectified ethyl alcohol (England, Scotland, USA), raw malt alcohol (Holland) with dried juniper berries and adding, depending on the brand of gin, various spices that add taste and smell. In Russia, gin is prepared by blending (mixing) juniper berry alcohol, rectified ethyl alcohol and distilled water to a strength of 45% vol.

Liqueur is a strong, spicy alcoholic drink obtained by mixing rectified ethyl alcohol, sugar syrup and fruit or plant essences (juices). For Va-hep liqueurs, the strength is 20.0% vol.

Liqueurs are a mixture of alcoholized fruit and berry juices with rectified alcohol and sugar. The strength of liqueurs is 18...20% vol., sugar content is 28...40%.

Cognac (GOST 13741-78) is an original strong alcoholic drink of amber-golden color with a specific bouquet and taste. To make cognacs, cognac alcohol is used, obtained by fractional distillation of grape wines, followed by aging in oak barrels for three to 15 years. Fractional distillation can be single, with the selection of the middle fraction of cognac alcohol, or double. In the latter case, first, using simple distillation, raw alcohol with a strength of 23...30% vol. is obtained, from which cognac alcohol is obtained as a result of fractional distillation. The composition (blend) of cognacs includes several batches of cognac spirits, which are mixed in different proportions to obtain a richer taste and aroma. The batches and composition of alcohols for the blend are selected by tasters.

Depending on the quality, cognacs are divided into ordinary and vintage.

The following brands of cognac are considered ordinary:

“three stars” with a strength of 40.0% vol., made from cognac spirits aged for at least three years;

“four stars” with a strength of 41.0% vol., made from cognac spirits aged for at least four years;

“five stars” with a strength of 42.0% vol., made from cognac spirits aged for at least five years.

A separate group of ordinary cognacs consists of special brand cognacs (40.0% vol. strength, sugar content 7...15 g/dm3), made from cognac spirits aged for at least four years.

In addition to cognac alcohol, the blend of ordinary cognacs includes distilled or softened water, sugar syrup, alcoholized waters and color.

Vintage cognacs are called higher quality cognacs, which contain alcohols that have been aged for at least six years. Vintage cognacs have their own names and are divided into the following groups:

aged cognacs “KB”, strength 42% vol., sugar content 7...12 g/dm3, made from cognac spirits aged for at least six years;

aged cognacs of the highest quality “KVVK”, strength 40...45% vol., sugar content 7...12 g/dm3, made from cognac spirits aged for at least eight years;

old cognacs “KS”, strength 4057% vol., sugar content 7...20 g/dm3, made from cognac spirits aged for at least 10 years.

2. Features of collecting and preliminary examination of alcohol-containing liquids

.1 Collection of alcohol-containing liquids

If possible, alcohol-containing liquids in containers are removed together with these containers. A middle sample is taken from tanks and tanks, and if there is stratification of the liquid, a sample is taken from the upper, middle and lower parts. If sediment is present, a sample is taken separately from the sediment area. Trace amounts of alcohol-containing liquids on carrier objects are removed, if possible, together with the carrier object. In this case, stains of alcohol-containing liquids are preliminarily isolated using materials that do not absorb them, for example polyethylene. The mark on the clothing is also covered with polyethylene and trimmed around the edges. For long-term storage, the polyethylene is covered on top with paper that does not transmit light.

Drops of alcohol-containing liquids are removed using capillaries, pipettes, syringes, which are then placed in glass containers with ground glass or PVC stoppers.

2.2 Preliminary study of alcohol-containing liquids

Preliminary research is the non-procedural application of special knowledge to determine the relevance of detected traces (including in the form of micro-objects of substances and materials) to the event under investigation, obtaining data on the mechanism of their formation, establishing the signs of the trace-forming object and collecting information about possible signs, habits and others data characterizing the criminal.

The main goal of the preliminary investigation is to quickly obtain information to find the criminal without delay.

In addition, in the process of preliminary research, the suitability of the detected traces for identification is determined, the necessary measures are taken to preserve the seized objects, and establish their relevance to the case.

A preliminary study of micro-objects is carried out in accordance with general recommendations for forensic technology and is aimed mainly at solving the following problems:

detection of microparticles or microquantities of substances and materials on elements of the scene of the incident;

tentative determination of the nature of the above micro-objects for the purpose of finding and seizing products (individually defined elements of material furnishings) made from similar substances and materials for comparative research;

clarification of the mechanism of formation of micro-objects (the relative position and direction of interaction of objects involved in trace formation);

comparison of microparticles and microquantities of substances with substances and materials of specific objects in order to determine the advisability of referral for further expert research.

When conducting preliminary research, the following general scientific research methods are usually used.

.Observation is a deliberate, systematic, purposeful perception with the aim of studying an object or phenomenon. During the preliminary study, it can be carried out in two ways:

visually with the naked eye in natural light; using technical means - magnifying glasses, microscopes, special illuminators in diffused and directed light at various angles, in reflected, transmitted and backlight, in the invisible region of the spectrum (in ultraviolet light using mercury-quartz illuminators,

infrared light using electron-optical converters, in x-rays using the Reis emitter), the corresponding technical means can be located in a unified suitcase or a mobile forensic laboratory.

Measurement is a set of actions that are performed using measuring instruments in order to find the numerical value of a quantity in accepted units of measurement. At the scene of an incident, it is most often necessary to determine linear and angular quantities.

Comparison is a comparison and assessment of the properties and characteristics of the objects being studied in order to establish their identity or difference. Comparison is possible both by comparing the signs of material objects according to their traces (displays), and by comparing objects with the traces themselves, the objects themselves, signs of traces with reference data.

An experiment is a special reproduction of elements of an event under specified or variable conditions.

Modeling is the study of any phenomena, processes or objects by constructing and studying their analogues (samples).

When conducting preliminary research, an important role is played by the material appearance of the models.

As a result of a preliminary study, it is possible to obtain information on the following characteristics of micro-objects:

geometric dimensions;

morphology (i.e. the spatial structure of objects) and features of the external structure;

structure, color and state of aggregation;

solubility in water and organic solvents;

nature (organic, inorganic, etc.) using appropriate chemical reagents or tests;

physical, mechanical and chemical properties. Based on these data, primary information is obtained about the nature of the detected microobjects, the totality of their signs and characteristic features, preliminary information about the chemical composition, and the class, genus, species, and variety are predicted.

Preliminary research of microobjects includes several stages.

Analysis of seized micro-objects based on external characteristics, color, state of aggregation, and other distinctive features. At the same stage, it is necessary to separate the contaminants, or, conversely, sort micro-objects into them.

Establishing the belonging of sorted micro-objects to the incident event.

This is done taking into account the picture of the incident, as well as the specificity of micro-objects for each type of incident.

Both of these circumstances are taken into account when deciding what methods and means need to be used to determine the nature and origin of micro-objects.

The use of physical, physicochemical and chemical methods that provide information on elemental, functional and phase compositions. These can be indicative tests using chemical droplet reactions, chemical tests, determination of physical and mechanical properties.

For example, by the external color with the naked eye we can determine the type of alcohol-containing liquid: vodka, beer, wine or wine. Vodka is a colorless, transparent, shiny liquid without foreign inclusions or sediment. Colorless, transparent, but without shine liquid. Cognac - color from light golden to light brown with a golden tint.

3. Methods and technical means for expert research of alcohol-containing liquids

.1 Technical means used at the stage of expert research

In the forensic study of substances, materials and products, all methods and technical means intended for their implementation can be roughly divided into the following three main groups:

methods and technical means for identifying the physical, chemical and other properties of the substances, materials and products being studied (analytical research equipment);

methods and technical means of conducting comparative research, mainly to establish similarity-difference relationships between compared objects;

methods and technical means of assessing the data obtained by a specialist or expert as specific grounds for a particular conclusion.

For the forensic study of substances, materials and products, the most significant importance is the classification of methods and means according to the nature of information about the object under study. For an expert, the source and nature of information are important, not the method of obtaining it. Accordingly, the following groups of methods and means are distinguished:

morphoanalysis, i.e. studying the external and internal structure of physical bodies at macro-, micro- and ultra-micro levels;

analysis of the structure of matter;

the study of individual properties of a substance (physical, for example electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability or color; chemical, for example polarity).

The strength of vodka is determined by the hydrometric or pycnometric method. It is allowed to determine the strength of vodka using automatic electronic devices included in the state register of measuring instruments. The areometric method is based on measuring the volume fraction of ethyl alcohol (strength) in aqueous-alcohol solutions with an alcohol hydrometer. Glass hydrometers for alcohol; liquid glass thermometers; laboratory glass refrigerator; drip catcher; flasks; cylinders; distilled water. The strength of vodkas containing additives is determined after preliminary distillation of alcohol or in automatic distillers. The mass concentration of fusel oil (1-propanol, 2-propanol, isobutyl alcohol, 1-butanol, isoamyl alcohol) in vodka is determined by the optical density of the analyzed solution, colored dark yellow, proportional to the mass concentration of fusel oil. Materials, reagents, equipment: Laboratory scales; photoelectric colorimeter; alcohol hydrometer; liquid thermometer; stopwatch; test tube rack; glass cylinders; test tubes with a capacity of 45 dm3 with ground stoppers: a weighing cup; flasks; pipettes; true concentrated acid (pure grade); distilled water; water bath; alcohol solution with a volume fraction of salicylic aldehyde 1%; standard samples of standard reagents with a mass concentration of fusel oil of 2, 3, 4, 6 mg in 1 dm3 of anhydrous alcohol.

To determine the mass concentration of sugars in cognac, you need technochemical and analytical balances, thermometers, flasks, pipettes, cylinders, burettes, weighing cups (jug bottles), a desiccator, droppers, laboratory funnels, a stopwatch or hourglass for 2 and 5 minutes, a porcelain mortar with pestle, water bath, distilled water, copper sulfate (reagent grade), potassium sodium tartrate, sodium hydroxide (solution with (NaOH) = I mol/dm3 and mass concentration 20 g/100 cm3).

To determine the relative density of wine, it is necessary to use a measuring cylinder with a capacity of 100 cm3, a thermometer and a set of hydrometers. To determine the wine extract, an RPL-3 refractometer and a glass rod are used. The acidity of wine is determined using phenolphthalein 01, N NaOH solution, distilled water, a 200 cm3 volumetric flask, a 10 and 20 cm3 Mohr pipette, a 200-300 cm3 conical flask, as well as a 100 cm3 graduated cylinder and a titration unit.

As for the technical means used at the stage of expert research of beer, in order to determine the content of carbon dioxide in beer, it is necessary to use a water bath, a wax pencil, a device for determining carbon dioxide in beer and a measuring cylinder. To determine foam resistance, a thermostat, thermometer, stopwatch, ruler, chemical machine and a tripod with a ring are used.

.2 Organoleptic examination

Organoleptic research is based on determining the appearance, color, consistency, smell and taste of a product using the senses.

Table. According to GOST 5363-93, organoleptic evaluation of vodka is carried out in the following order

Quality indicator Organoleptic characteristics of vodka Transparency and color Colorless, transparent liquid with a shine without foreign inclusions and sediment. Colorless, transparent, but without shine liquid. Turbid liquid. Aroma characteristic of this species, pronounced without any extraneous aroma. Characteristic for this species, good. Characteristic for this species, weakly expressed. Uncharacteristic for this species, it has an extraneous coarse aroma. Taste Characteristic for this species, clean, soft, without any foreign aftertaste. Characteristic for this species, but somewhat harsh. Characteristic for this species, but sharp, burning. Uncharacteristic for this species, it has a coarse foreign aftertaste.

The drink is poured into a tasting glass to about 1/3 of the volume (40-50 cm3). The glass is lifted by the stem, tilted and the transparency and color are visually assessed in transmitted diffused light. Various deviations from color and transparency can be identified by comparing the analyzed vodka with distilled water, placing them in identical 10 cm3 test tubes.

Then the smell and aroma are assessed by heating the bottom of the glass with your palms and rotating the glass in a horizontal plane, which promotes better evaporation of aromatic substances.

After the aroma, taste is determined. Take a small portion of the drink into your mouth and hold it in the front part. Then, slightly tilting the head back, rinse the entire mouth, identifying deviations in taste. The taste and aroma must be harmonious, pleasant, without the burning taste and smell of alcohol, foreign tastes and smells, such as the smell of rubber, kerosene, metallic taste from containers with damaged coating, foreign tastes and smells resulting from the production of vodka on poorly processed equipment. In terms of organoleptic indicators, cognacs, including cognacs supplied for export, must meet the following requirements: taste and bouquet - characteristic of cognac of this type, without foreign taste and smell; color - from light golden to light brown with a golden tint; transparency - transparent with shine, without foreign inclusions (Table 2).

table 2

Quality indicator Organoleptic characteristics Transparency Transparent liquid with shine without foreign inclusions and sediment Color From light golden to light brown with a golden tint Taste and bouquet Characteristic for this type, without foreign taste and odor

The temperature of cognac samples served for tasting should be 16-18°C. First, ordinary cognacs are evaluated, then vintage ones.

Cognac is judged by its transparency, color, aroma, bouquet, and taste. High-quality cognacs are characterized by a light amber color, darker for long-aging drinks, crystal transparency, complex bouquet and aroma, harmonious taste, and oily consistency.

Intense smells of vanillin, essence, and fruits can be felt in adulterated cognacs.

In the organoleptic analysis of wines, the main evaluation method is organoleltic tasting, which determines transparency, fluidity, color, aroma (bouquet), taste and typicality.

The clarity of a wine is determined by placing a glass between the eyes and a light source. The wine should be clear, without turbidity, sediment or foreign matter.

The fluidity of the wine is determined by rotating the barrel. Wine can be mobile (easily flows down the walls of the glass), thick, oily (lingers on the walls, moves slowly), viscous, slimy (sick wine).

When assessing the color of a wine, the intensity of the color and its correspondence to the variety, type and age of the wine are determined. The wine should feel alcohol, acidity, sugar, astringency, etc. If they combine well with each other, the wine is called harmonious.

The bouquet (aroma) of wine is assessed jointly by the organs of taste and smell. Each wine must correspond in aroma to its variety, group and type.

The taste of wine is assessed by the fullness of taste, including the total tactile and taste effect of the sweetness, acidity and astringency of the wine. According to the fullness of taste, a wine can be empty, liquid (light), thin, oily, full (extractive), thick and heavy. Depending on the degree to which these indicators harmonize, the following degrees of taste are distinguished: refined, harmonious, simple, inharmonious, rough, disordered. The taste of the wine must correspond to the type.

The typicality of a wine shows how well a sample corresponds to the type inherent in a given brand of wine. Typicality consists of typicality of color, aroma and taste.

When evaluating sparkling wines, sparkling properties are analyzed: the size of the bubbles released, their number, duration of release. Based on the characteristics of the foam properties, the structure of the foam, its renewal rate, etc. are determined.

In terms of organoleptic indicators, beer must meet the requirements given in table. 3

Table 3

IndicatorType of beer light semi-dark dark Transparency Transparent liquid without sediment and foreign inclusions Aroma and taste Pure taste and aroma of fermented malt drink with hop bitterness and hop aroma without foreign odors and tastes Corresponding to the type of beer Malt taste with a hint of caramel malt, corresponding to the type of beer Full malt taste with a pronounced caramel aftertaste malt or roasted malt, corresponding to the type beerIn beer with an initial wort extract of 15% and above - a wine aftertaste Through tasting, beer properties such as clarity, color, smell (aroma) and taste, hop bitterness, foaminess and carbon dioxide content are determined.

Organoleptic tests are carried out in cylindrical glasses made of colorless glass with a capacity of 150-200 cm3 with a diameter of 50-60 mm, and the temperature of the beer being tasted should be 12±2°C.

The appearance of beer poured into a glass determines its transparency, color, and the release of gas bubbles.

Aroma, flavor and hop bitterness are assessed by tasting the beer in small sips. When evaluating light beer, attention is paid to hop bitterness, and dark beer - to the malt aroma and fullness of taste.

3.3 Physico-chemical study

Methods of physical and chemical analysis of vodka are used to determine the completeness of filling in bottles, the strength of vodka, its alkalinity, the mass concentration of aldehydes, the mass concentration of fusel oil, esters, and the volume fraction of methyl alcohol.

According to the physical and chemical parameters of vodka and special vodka, they must meet the requirements specified in Table 4

Determination of filling completeness

The method is based on determining the volume of vodka in bottles using measuring laboratory glassware.

The volume of vodka in each bottle is determined at the actual temperature, recalculating the volume at a temperature of (20±5) ° C in accordance with Table 4 of the Appendix. The results are expressed in cubic centimeters with an accuracy of tenths. The final result is taken as the arithmetic mean value of the volume measurements in each of 20 bottles in terms of temperature (20±5)°C, in cm3, rounded to the nearest whole number.

Determining the strength of vodka

The strength of vodka is determined by the hydrometric or pycnometric method. It is allowed to determine the strength of vodka using automatic electronic devices included in the state register of measuring instruments.

The areometric method is based on measuring the volume fraction of ethyl alcohol (strength) in aqueous-alcohol solutions with an alcohol hydrometer.

Table 4

The strength of vodkas containing additives is determined after preliminary distillation of alcohol, which is carried out in a laboratory installation for distilling alcohol or in automatic distillers.

It is also possible to determine the strength of vodka using electronic automatic devices. The IKONET-M optical alcohol meter is designed to determine the volume fraction of ethyl alcohol in aqueous-alcohol and multicomponent alcohol-containing solutions without preliminary distillation of the alcohol. The method is based on comparing the optical characteristics of the analyzed solution with the characteristics of a standard aqueous-alcohol solution. The electronic device "DENSIMAT-LLKOMLT" is designed to determine the volume fraction of ethyl alcohol in aqueous-alcohol solutions using the principle of hydrostatic balances. This device allows you to determine the density of aqueous-alcohol solutions with an accuracy of ±0.00005 g/cm3 and temperature with an accuracy of ±0.05°C.

Determination of alkalinity

Alkalinity is understood as the volume of hydrochloric acid solution with a molar concentration CHp = 0.1 mol/dm3, consumed for the titration of 100 cm3 of vodka.

The method for determining alkalinity is based on determining the volume of hydrochloric acid solution of the molar concentration consumed for titration.

Determination of mass concentration of aldehydes

To determine the mass concentration of aldehydes (in terms of acetaldehyde), the gas chromatographic method or the photoelectrocolorimetric method given below is used.

The method is based on measuring the intensity of the color of the analyzed solution, formed after the reaction of aldehydes present in vodka with resorcinol in a strongly acidic medium using a photoelectrocolorimeter.

Before performing the analysis, it is necessary to prepare an aqueous-alcohol solution and a solution of resorcinol. When preparing an introductory alcohol solution, vodka with a strength of more than 40% is diluted with distilled water to the required strength at a temperature of (20 ± 0.2) ° C.

The analysis of each standard sample is carried out at least three times and the arithmetic mean is calculated from the obtained optical density values.

The mass concentration of aldehydes is calculated using an equation or a calibration graph. The final result of the analysis (rounded to two digits) is taken as the arithmetic mean of two parallel determinations.

Determination of mass concentration of fusel oil

The photoelectrocolorimetric method for determining the mass concentration of fusel oil is based on measuring the intensity of the color of the analyzed solution, formed after the reaction of fusel oil present in vodka with salicylic aldehyde in an acidic environment.

The mass concentration of fusel oil (1-propanol, 2-propanol, isobutyl alcohol, 1-butanol, isoamyl alcohol) in vodka is determined by the optical density of the analyzed solution, colored dark yellow, proportional to the mass concentration of fusel oil.

Determining the mass concentration of fusel oil is similar to the method for determining the mass concentration of aldehydes. Based on the optical density values, calculations are made using the formula:

where C cm.- concentration of fusel oil, K and K 1- coefficients determined from experimental data using the least squares method for each brand of photoelectric colorimeter and a new batch of solutions used; D - optical density.

The analysis is carried out using 5 cm3 of the analyzed vodka sample instead of a standard sample.

To calculate the content of fusel oil, a correction must be made for the aldehydes present in vodka, which also react with salicylic aldehyde. To do this, from the resulting colorimetric optical density value, the calculated optical density value corresponding to the amount of aldehydes that is determined in the analyzed vodka and calculated using an equation or a graduated graph should be subtracted.

Determination of the presence of fusel oil can be carried out using the Gottefroi method: 10-15 cm3 of vodka is poured into a heat-resistant vessel, 2-3 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid and the same amount of benzene are added. The mixture is stirred, carefully heated and slowly cooled. In the presence of fusel oil, the solution acquires a dark brown color.

Determination of mass concentration of esters

The photoelectrocolorimetric method for determining the mass concentration of esters (methyl acetate, ethyl acetate) is based on measuring the color intensity of the reaction products of iron (III) chloride 6-aqueous with hydroxamic acid, formed as a result of the interaction of vodka esters with hydroxylamine in an alkaline medium.

The mass concentration of esters in vodka containing sugars with free glycosidic hydroxyl (glucose, lactose, etc.) is determined only in the distillate after preliminary distillation.

Determination of the volume fraction of methyl alcohol

The photoelectrocolorimetric method for determining the volume fraction of methyl alcohol is based on the oxidation of methyl alcohol in an orthophosphoric acid environment with potassium permanganate to formaldehyde, which forms a lilac-colored compound with the disodium salt of chromotropic acid, the intensity of which is measured on a photoelectrocolorimeter.

According to physical and chemical indicators, cognacs must meet the requirements (Table 5.)

Determination of mass concentration of sugars

The mass concentration of sugars is determined by two methods provided for by the state standard: the Bertrand method and direct titration.

Bertrand's method is based on the reduction of the oxide form of copper in Fehling's solution to the oxide form by invert sugar. The oxide form of copper is converted to the oxide form using ferric sulfate. The resulting ferric oxide is determined permanganatemetrically.

Table 5

Determination of mass concentration of sugars by direct titration. The method is based on the reduction of the oxide form of copper (Fehling's solution) to the oxide form with invert sugar. Titration of a certain volume of Fehling's solution of a specified concentration is carried out with a test solution containing sugar until the copper oxide is completely reduced to nitrous oxide. The end of the reaction is determined using a methylene blue indicator. The method is used for cognacs with a sugar content of more than 1 g per 100 cm3.

Determination of mass concentration of volatile acids

Determination of the mass concentration of volatile acids is carried out by two methods provided for by the standard: the steam distillation method and the fractional distillation method.

The steam distillation method is based on the distillation of volatile acids from wine and cognac alcohol using steam in a special device, which is an analogue of a distillation apparatus. The distillate is titrated with an alkali solution in the presence of phenolphthalein.

The fractional distillation method (Mathieu method) is valid for cognacs with a mass concentration of volatile acids up to 1 g/dm3. The method is based on the distillation of volatile acids from cognacs without steam. As the volume of cognac decreases, during the distillation process, distilled water is periodically added to the distillation flask to replenish the volume. The distillate is titrated with an alkali solution in the presence of phenolphthalein.

Determination of the mass concentration of volatile acids in cognacs is carried out after their preliminary distillation.

Determination of the mass concentration of methyl alcohol in cognacs and cognac spirits

This method applies to cognacs and cognac spirits and establishes a colorimetric method for determining methyl alcohol with the disodium salt of chromotropic acid.

The method is based on the oxidation of methyl alcohol in an acidic environment with potassium permanganate to formaldehyde, which forms a pink-violet compound with the disodium salt of chromotropic acid.

A sample of methyl alcohol weighing 1 g, weighed in a bottle, is transferred to a volumetric flask with a capacity of 100 cm3 and the volume is adjusted to the mark with a solution of ethyl alcohol with a volume fraction of 40%.

To prepare reference solutions, measure 1.25 into volumetric flasks with a capacity of 50 cm3; 2.50; 3.75; 5.00; 6.25; 7.50 and 8.75 cm3 of a basic solution of methyl alcohol and the contents of each flask are brought to the mark with a solution of ethyl alcohol with a volume fraction of 40%. The mass concentration of the resulting solutions corresponds to 0.25; 0.50; 0.75; 1.00; 1.25; 1.50 and 1.75 g/dm3 methyl alcohol.

When preparing a control solution, instead of 0.25 cm3 of ethyl alcohol solution, take the same amount of distilled water.

For testing, you can use the distillate of cognac or cognac alcohol remaining after determining the strength. In this case, the distillate is diluted to obtain a solution with a volume fraction of ethyl alcohol of 40%.

In young colorless cognac alcohol, the methyl alcohol content is determined without distillation.

Mass concentration of methyl alcohol X 1in cognacs and cognac spirits, g/dm3, calculated by the formula:

where m is the mass concentration of methyl alcohol found from the calibration curve, g/dm3; A - dilution factor of cognac or cognac alcohol.

The calculation is carried out to the second decimal place. The arithmetic mean of the results of two parallel determinations is taken as the result of the analysis and rounded to the second decimal place.

Methods of physicochemical analysis in wine determine the relative density of wine, the volume fraction of ethanol (ethyl alcohol), the mass fraction of sugars, total and free sulfurous acid, carbon dioxide (for sparkling and sparkling wines), iron, titratable acidity, total and reduced wine extract etc.

Table 6

Other standardized indicators for wines and wine materials are presented in Table 7.

Table 7

Determination of relative density

Density is an important physical indicator for the objective characteristics of wine. Usually they use the so-called relative density d, which shows the ratio of the density of a given substance to the density of distilled water taken at a temperature of 4 ° C, and is a dimensionless quantity.

In industrial conditions and in laboratory practice, the method of determining density using a hydrometer is often used.

The density of grape wines (at a temperature of 20°C) should be within the following limits: natural wines 1.003-1.01; special wines 1.02-1.11.

The wine to be tested is carefully poured into a dry, cleanly washed cylinder, without foaming, and a thoroughly wiped hydrometer is immersed in it, without touching the walls of the cylinder. The scale readings are taken at the lower level of the meniscus after the immersion of the hydrometer stops; in this case, the observer's eye should be at the same level with the surface of the liquid.

Definition of extract

Extract is the sum of non-volatile substances of organic and mineral origin contained in wine. There are total, reduced and residual extracts.

The total extract is the total content of carbohydrates, non-volatile acids, phenolic, nitrogenous and mineral substances, as well as non-volatile polyhydric alcohols (glycerol, inositol).

The extract given is the total extract minus the reducing sugars.

The residual extract is the reduced extract minus titratable acids.

Determining the extract allows you to judge the taste qualities of the wine.

Using a glass rod, a few drops of wine are placed on the prism of an RPL-3 refractometer and the mass fraction of dry substances is measured.

The mass concentration of the given extract is standardized in aged, vintage, controlled denominations of origin and export wines: in natural whites - at least 16 g/dm3, special dry ones - 17 g/dm3 and in all others - 18 g/dm3.

Determination of ethanol

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is the leading component of wine, characterizing its type and taste characteristics.

Determination of acidity

Wine has an acidic reaction due to the presence of organic acids in it: malic, tartaric, succinic, lactic, citric, etc. To feel the shade of acidity, the ratio of acids is important. The sharply sour taste of wine is due to the predominance of tartaric acid in it. Wines that contain relatively high amounts of malic and citric acids have a soft, pleasant taste of freshness.

Titratable acidity is the main indicator for characterizing the taste of wine. The titratable acidity of wine refers to the content of free acids and their acid salts, expressed in grams per 1 dm3 of wine (in terms of tartaric acid).

The titratable acidity in grape wines is 3-8 g/dm3.

Determination of viscosity

Viscosity characterizes the internal friction that occurs during the relative movement of adjacent layers of liquid and depends on the adhesion forces between its molecules. The value of dynamic viscosity is expressed in Pascal seconds (Pa With).

The viscosity of the wine affects such indicators as the foaming ability and foam stability of sparkling wines.

Wines, different in their composition and properties, are characterized by different viscosity. Various viscometers are used to measure viscosity, of which the Ostwald viscometer is most widely used in the analysis of wines.

Determination of physical and chemical indicators of beer quality

Determination of carbon dioxide content

Foaming, taste and persistence of beer depend on the carbon dioxide content. There are a number of different methods for determining the carbon dioxide content in beer: gravimetric, volumetric-analytical, and manometric.

Manometric method for determining carbon dioxide. Based on Henry's law, which states that the amount of gas dissolved in a given amount of liquid at a given temperature is proportional to the pressure of the gas remaining undissolved above the liquid. The carbon dioxide content in beer is calculated from this pressure.

The device for determining the carbon dioxide content in beer is a press in which a bottle of beer is clamped. Above the upper platform of the press there is a pressure gauge, and below it there is a tightly fixed steel hollow needle connected by an internal channel to the pressure gauge; A thick rubber gasket is secured around the needle.

Determination of foam resistance

Thick and persistent foam is a sign of good quality beer. Foaming depends primarily on the number and size of dissolved carbon dioxide bubbles released when beer is poured into the glass, and the amount of air bubbles trapped during pouring. The smaller the size of beer bubbles, the higher the mass fraction of dry substances in the initial wort.

Foaming is assessed by foam stability, which is understood as the time it takes for the foam formed when pouring beer to subside. Good foam stability is manifested when the beer is sufficiently saturated with carbon dioxide and the presence of surfactants that reduce the surface tension between gas bubbles and liquid. Substances that increase the viscosity of beer (high molecular weight proteins, hop substances) easily form a shell around rising gas bubbles and contribute to the creation of persistent foam.

Beer poured into a glass or mug must form foam, and the resulting foam must be stable, i.e. it should not fall off for a long time. Over time, all foam breaks down, but the duration of its existence, i.e. stability, is an important characteristic of foam. Foam resistance (stability) is understood as the time (seconds or minutes) elapsed from the moment of foam formation until its complete destruction. Foaminess is characterized by the height of the foam layer (mm) formed when beer is poured from an uncorked bottle into a special cylindrical glass. These two characteristics are determined simultaneously.

Determination of titratable acidity

Titratable acidity is the main indicator characterizing the taste of beer. Titrated acidity refers to the content of free acids and their acid salts, expressed in grams per 1 dm3.

To determine the acidity of beer, the titration method with red phenolphthalein is usually used.

Preparation of red phenolphthalein solution. A solution of red phenolphthalein is prepared as follows. To 20 cm3 of distilled water, freed from carbon dioxide by heating, add 10 drops of a 1% alcohol solution of phenolphthalein and 4 drops of 0.1 N. NaOH solution. The solution is prepared every day and stored in a bottle with a ground stopper.

Definition of chromaticity

Color is determined by the photoelectrocolorimetric method using an appropriate equation or calibration curve.

The essence of the method is to measure the optical density of the beer under study on FEK-56M in a cuvette with a solution layer thickness of 10 mm at a wavelength of 540 nm (filter No. 6) and subsequent recalculation using the equation

where is Cv. - color of beer; D - optical density of beer; a - optical density conversion factor 0.1 n. iodine solution; l is the thickness of the beer layer in the cuvette, cm.

For this conversion, the existing unit of color (1 cm3 of 0.1 N iodine solution per 100 cm3 of beer) should be expressed in units of optical density. Conversion factor a for 1 cm3 0.1 n. iodine solution per 100 cm3 volume in a layer 10 mm thick and at a wavelength of 540 nm is 0.075.

Before photometry, it is necessary to carefully filter the beer. Colorless particles, which cause turbidity in solutions, significantly affect the loss of light and significantly increase the measurement error.

Determining the completeness of beer filling into bottles

To control the correct filling of bottles, determine the completeness of filling using a graduated cylinder.

Preliminarily adjust the temperature of the beer in bottles to 20 °C. Then the bottle of beer is opened and the contents are poured down the side into a clean, dry cylinder with a capacity of 500 cm3. If the volume of beer exceeds 500 cm3, the excess is poured into a cylinder with a capacity of 25 cm3. After the foam has completely settled along the lower meniscus, a reading is made with an accuracy not exceeding half the cylinder scale division. The actual temperature of beer is measured with a mercury glass thermometer with a measurement interval from 0 to 100 ° C and a division value of 1 ° C or a process thermometer with similar characteristics. If the temperature differs from 20°C, a correction is introduced to the measured volume value. For every 5°C below 20°C, add 0.3 cm3.

The final measurement result (cm3) is calculated using the formula:

where Xi is the completeness of filling one bottle, cm3;

n is the number of beer bottles under study (equal to 10).

Conclusion

When investigating cases of various categories, evidentiary information is used, contained in traces - residues of substances such as paints, fibers, petroleum products, soil, etc., formed as a result of mechanical interactions of various objects with each other and with the material situation of the crime.

The substance of the trace, as the most important and very specific material evidence, acquires exceptional importance, since the totality of such traces, reflecting the elements of the material situation of the crime, makes it possible to identify the patterns of the mechanism of the crime. Therefore, the forensic study of materials and substances is a current direction in the development of forensic examinations and criminology.

The improvement of the theory and practice of using scientific and technical achievements in criminal proceedings, special knowledge and scientific and technical means was facilitated by fundamental research carried out by A. F. Aubakirov, S. F. Bychkova, V. V. Velichkina, L. V. Vinitsky, V. K. Daurskikh, I. A. Zolotarevskaya, A. M. Ikhsanova, L. T. Kalinovskaya, E. P. Kireeva, K. A. Mushatova, V. A. Puchkov, T. M. Puchkova, S. N Rekhson, L. G. Shuravina and others.

The development and strengthening of control over the quality and safety of food products is one of the priorities of our time. The main criterion for a person’s attitude to the vast world of alcoholic beverages should be reliable information about the role and place of drinks in the diet. In this regard, the issues of regulating safety indicators, knowledge of which is necessary for both specialists and ordinary consumers, are of paramount importance.

In this course work, we tried to consider the role of forensic research of alcohol-containing liquids.

Bibliography

Averyanova, T.V. Forensics: textbook for universities / T.V. Averyanova, R.S. Belkin, Yu.G. Korukhov // ed. R.S. Belkina. - M.: NORMA-INFRA-M, 2001. - 990 p.

Vander, M.B. The use of microparticles in the investigation of crimes / M.B. Vander. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. - 156 p.

Vander, M.B. Forensic examination of materials, substances, products / M.B. Vander. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. - 128 p.

Korukhov, Yu.G. Forensic diagnostics in the investigation of crimes: a scientific and practical guide / Yu.G. Korukhov. - M.: Norma, 1998. - 112 p.

Mitrichev, V.S. Forensic research of paints and varnishes, coatings and painted objects: educational and methodological manual for educational institutions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia / V.S. Mitrichev, V.N. Khrustalev. - Saratov: SyuI MIA of Russia, 1999. - 436 p.

Mitrichev, V.S. Fundamentals of forensic research of materials, substances and products made from them / V.S. Mitrichev, V.N. Khrustalev. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. - 591 p.

Appointment and production of forensic examinations: a manual for investigators, judges and experts. - M.: Legal literature, 1988. - 236 p.

Fundamentals of forensic examination of materials, substances and products: textbook / ed. V.G. Savenko. - M.: EKTs MIA of Russia, 1993. - 320 p.

Modern capabilities of forensic examinations: a manual for experts, investigators and judges. - M.: RFCSE, 2000. - 144 p.

Khrustalev, V.N. Forensic research of substances, materials and products: a course of lectures / V.N. Khrustalev, V.M. Raigorodsky. - Saratov: SuiuI MIA of Russia, 2003. - 186 p.

Nowadays, cases of alcohol poisoning are becoming more and more common in our lives. Poisoning results from the consumption of illegally manufactured and sold alcohol-containing liquids. The consequences of drinking low-quality or adulterated alcohol vary from poisoning to death. Moreover, problems from low-quality alcohol can arise not only from consumers, but also from the seller, since having bought a seemingly normal batch, you can put up for sale a batch of illegal, low-quality alcohol. To avoid such problems, it is necessary to conduct an examination of the alcohol-containing liquid.

Food alcohols obtained mainly from starch-containing raw materials:

n grain crops,

n potatoes,

n beets and beet sugar molasses production waste.

n grapes in the production of cognacs,

n from apples in the production of Calvados apple spirit.

Raw materials for technical alcohols are waste from sulfite-cellulose production and wood hydrolysis products.

Synthetic ethyl alcohols obtained from natural gases containing ethylene and associated gases obtained during oil refining.

Ethyl alcohol is widely used in various fields of industry, primarily in the chemical industry. Synthetic rubber, acetic acid, dyes, essences, photographic film, gunpowder, and plastics are obtained from it. Alcohol is a good solvent and antiseptic. Therefore, it is used in medicine and perfumery. Ethyl alcohol is used in large quantities to produce alcoholic beverages.

During the examination of alcoholic products, the presence of alcohols and impurities in the liquid is examined, its type is determined, and compliance with state standards or the fact of falsification is determined.

The examination considers the following as research objects:

Various samples of industrial (vodka, cognac, wine) and artisanal (moonshine, mash, tinctures) alcoholic beverages;

Seized liquids marketed as alcoholic beverages.

The study of alcohol-containing liquids in our organization is carried out using the following methods: organoleptic, photographic, physicochemical (thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography). Examinations are carried out by competent, highly professional experts with extensive experience using certified, certified, modern equipment:

Gas chromatograph "Crystal 5000.2"

Set of hydrometers "ASP-1"

To carry out the analysis, it is necessary to provide at least 1 liter of the test liquid.

In the case of a large batch of bottles containing alcohol-containing liquids, it is necessary to carry out a representative selection. To do this, it is necessary to select from different boxes (places), paying attention to the production date indicated on the labels. In case of different production dates, provide at least 1 liter of product for each production date.

When sampling from large volumes (tanks, barrels, flasks, etc.), samples must be collected in dry and clean containers. Before removal (if quantity allows), it is necessary to rinse the container with the liquid being removed. If there is sediment in the liquid, it is necessary to shake the liquid before removing it (in order to remove part of the sediment). The seized liquid must not be sealed with paper stoppers (paper contains substances that dissolve in alcohol and can affect the course of the study). Samples are placed in clean glass containers (bottles, jars) and hermetically sealed.

The use of plastic or metal containers for these purposes is not allowed, because ethyl alcohol is the main component of alcohol-containing liquids and belongs to organic solvents, which can lead to the transfer of plasticizers of polymers or metals into the object under study.

For more detailed information, you can contact an expert by phone numbers listed on the website, or ask a question by email