Old Russian cuisine

Dating back 500 years of development, Old Russian cuisine is characterized by extreme constancy in the composition of dishes and their flavor range based on strict (scholastic) canons of cooking. The cuisine of this period was recorded in the first half of the 16th century, at the time of its culminating development, in a written monument of 1547 (“Domostroy”) by the advisor to Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, Sylvester, who compiled a list of contemporary dishes, culinary products and drinks. The refectory books of the largest Russian monasteries, preserved from the end of the 16th century, complement our information about the repertoire of ancient Russian cuisine.
It was based on bread, flour products and grain dishes. Already in the 9th century, that sour rye black bread with leavened dough appeared, which became the national Russian bread and the love for which the overwhelming majority of the people had a decisive influence on the position of the Russian church hierarchy in disputes about the Eucharist at the Ecumenical Councils in the middle of the 11th century (where the Russians the bishops rejected unleavened bread!) and the subsequent economic and political orientation of Rus' towards Byzantium, and not towards the Latin West.
All ancient flour products were created exclusively on the basis of sour rye dough, under the influence of fungal cultures. This is how flour jelly was created - rye, oat, pea, as well as pancakes and rye pies. Russian methods of sourdough, the use of dough from imported (and then local) wheat flour and its combination with rye later, in the 14th-15th centuries, new varieties of Russian national bread products: pancakes, shangi, pyshki (fried in oil), bagels, bagels (made from choux pastry), as well as kalachi - the main national Russian white baked bread.
Particularly developed were pies, i.e. products in a dough shell, with a wide variety of fillings - from fish, meat, poultry and game, mushrooms, cottage cheese, vegetables, berries, fruits, from various grains in combination with fish, meat and mushrooms .
The grain itself served as the basis for creating dishes from it - porridge. Porridges - spelled, buckwheat, rye, the so-called “green” (from young, unripe rye), barley (barley) - were made in three types depending on the ratio of grain and water: steep, slurry and gruel (semi-liquid). They were prepared with the addition of the same various products that were used in pies fillings. In the 10th-14th centuries, porridge acquired the significance of a mass ritual dish, which began and ended any major event marked by the participation of significant masses of people, be it a princely wedding, the beginning or completion of the construction of a church, fortress, or other socially significant event.
The habit of combining a predominantly flour base with meat, fish and vegetable products in a single culinary product or dish was the reason that at the end of the period of Old Russian cuisine (in the 16th and early 17th centuries), it organically included such “oriental” dishes as noodles (dairy , meat, chicken, mushroom) and dumplings, borrowed respectively from the Tatars (Turks) and Permians (Kama Finno-Ugric), but which became Russian dishes both in the eyes of foreigners and the Russian people themselves, and even gave rise to a purely Russian variety - kundyumy (fried dumplings with mushrooms).
During the medieval period, the majority of Russian national drinks also emerged: honey (around 880-890), prepared using a method close to the production of grape wines, and yielding a product close to cognac (aging from 5 to 35 years); drunken birch tree (921 year) - a product of fermentation of birch sap; hop honey (920-930) - with hops added to honey, in addition to berry juices; boiled honey - a product similar in technology to beer (996); kvass, strong drink (XI century); beer (circa 1284).
In the 40-70s of the 15th century. (no earlier than 1448 and no later than 1474) Russian vodka appeared in Russia. The early national technological differences in its production affected the higher quality of Russian vodka compared to the later vodka - Polish and Cherkassy (Ukrainian) vodka. Russian (Moscow) vodka was produced from rye grain by “sitting” rather than distillation, that is, through pipeless slow evaporation and condensation within the same container.
The spread of vodka began only from the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, when it became the subject of a state monopoly; From Russia, vodka spread to Sweden at the beginning of the 16th century (1505). In 1533 in Moscow, on Balchug opposite the Kremlin, the first public “restaurant” opened - the Tsar’s tavern. At the end of the 15th century. (in the 70-80s) the first professional chefs appeared - not only for the tsar, but also for princes and boyars. Separately from cooks, the profession of bakers is established, and there are three categories: Greeks - for stretched and unleavened dough, Russians - for rye and sour dough, Tatars - for wheat pastry.
Already in the early Middle Ages, a clear, or rather sharp, division of the Russian table into lean (vegetable-fish-mushroom) and fast (milk-egg-meat) developed, which had a huge impact on the entire further development of Russian cuisine until the end of the 19th century . This influence was not all positive and fruitful. Drawing a sharp line between the fast and fast table, fencing them off from each other with a “Chinese wall”, isolating some products from others, strictly preventing their mixing or combination - all this only partially led to the creation of some original dishes, but on the whole could not but cause the well-known monotony of the menu.
The Lenten table was the most fortunate from this artificial isolation. The fact that most days of the year - from 192 to 216 in different years - were considered fast, and fasts were observed very strictly, contributed to the natural expansion of the Lenten table. Hence the abundance of mushroom and fish dishes in Russian cuisine, all possible use of various plant materials - grains, vegetables, wild berries and herbs (nettle, snot, quinoa, etc.).
At first, attempts to diversify the Lenten table were expressed in the fact that each type of vegetable, mushroom or fish was prepared separately, independently. Cabbage, turnips, radishes, peas, cucumbers - vegetables known since the 9th century - if they were not eaten raw, then they were salted, steamed, boiled or baked, and separately from one another. Therefore, dishes such as salads have never been typical of Russian cuisine; they appeared in Russia already in the 19th century. as one of the borrowings from the West. But even then, they were initially made mainly with one vegetable, which is why they were called “cucumber salad”, “beet salad”, “potato salad”, etc. Mushroom and fish dishes were subject to even greater division. Each type of mushroom - milk mushrooms, mushrooms, honey mushrooms, white mushrooms, morels, boletus, russula, champignons, etc. - was salted or cooked completely separately from the others, which, by the way, is still practiced today. The situation was exactly the same with fish, which was consumed only boiled, dried, salted, baked, and only later, in the 19th century, fried. Each fish dish was prepared in a special way for a particular fish.
Therefore, fish soup was made from each fish separately and was called accordingly - perch, ruff, burbot (mnevo), sterlet, etc., and not just fish soup, like other peoples. Thus, the number of dishes in the 15th century was huge in name, but in content they differed little from one another. The taste diversity of homogeneous dishes was achieved, on the one hand, by differences in heat treatment, on the other hand, by the use of various oils, mainly vegetable (hemp, nut, poppy, wood, i.e. olive, and much later - sunflower), as well as the use of spices . Of the latter, onions and garlic were most often used, and in very large quantities, parsley, anise, coriander, bay leaves, black pepper and cloves, which appeared in Rus' already in the 10th-11th centuries, and in the 15th - early 16th centuries this set was supplemented ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, calamus and saffron.
Finally, during the medieval period of the development of Russian cuisine, a tendency to consume liquid hot dishes, which received the common name “khlebova,” was also revealed. The most widespread types of bread are those based on vegetable raw materials, as well as various types of flour soups.
As for milk and meat, these products were consumed relatively rarely until the 17th century, and their processing was not difficult. Meat (usually beef, less often pork and lamb) was cooked in cabbage soup or gruel and was almost never fried until the 16th century. A strict ban was imposed on the consumption of many types of meat - especially hare and veal. It remains a historical fact that in 1606 the boyars managed to incite a crowd against False Dmitry I, prompting them to break into the Kremlin only with the message that the tsar was not real, because he eats veal. This was the most convincing argument. They drank milk raw, stewed or sour; Cottage cheese and sour cream were made from sour milk, and the production of cream and butter remained almost unknown until the 19th century.
Honey and berries in ancient Russian cuisine were not only sweets in themselves, but also the basis on which syrups and preserves were created. And being mixed with flour and butter, with flour and eggs, honey and berries became the basis of the Russian national sweet product - gingerbread. Therefore, until the 14th century, gingerbreads were only made with honey or honey-berries, most often honey-raspberry or honey-strawberry. In the 14th-15th centuries, another Russian national sweet product appeared - levishniki, prepared from carefully mashed lingonberries, blueberries, cherries or strawberries, dried in a thin layer in the sun. Until the 20th century, the national Russian delicacy included nuts, first hazelnuts and walnuts (Volosh), and later, from the 17th century, pine nuts, and sunflower seeds.

. V.V. Pokhlebkin. 2005.

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SECRETS OF A GOOD KITCHEN Chapter 1. SERIOUS, EXPLAINING: WHO THE DOOR IS OPEN TO THE COOKING CRAFT AND WHY THIS CRAFT IS A COMPLEX, DIFFICULT ART Chapter 2. THE BASICS, BUT FAR NOT YET THE BASICS Five rules, five secrets of baking Chapter 3. DOUGH AND ITS... ... Great Encyclopedia of Culinary Arts

Despite the fact that many modern products were unknown in Rus' for a long time: potatoes, tomatoes, corn, rice, foreigners noted that the Russian table is the richest in the world, even among the common people. Dishes of Russian cuisine do not require special knowledge or exotic ingredients, but to prepare a truly delicious dish, a lot of experience is required. The main products in Rus' were turnips, cabbage, radishes, cucumbers, fruits, berries, mushrooms, fish and sometimes meat. The abundance of cereals - rye, wheat, oats, millet, peas, lentils - made it possible to prepare many types of breads, pancakes, cereals, kvass, beer and vodka.

Russia is a multinational state where each nation, having its own “specialty” dishes, borrowed recipes and culinary tricks from its neighbors, passing on its secrets to them. Each region and region of Russia boasts unique dishes. Russian cuisine has always been open to foreign borrowings, which did not spoil it at all, but rather beautified it. From the Scythians and Greeks, the Russians learned to prepare yeast dough; through Byzantium they learned about rice, buckwheat and numerous spices; tea came to us from China; from the Urals - dumplings; Bulgaria shared with us sweet peppers, eggplants and zucchini; Western Slavs contributed to Russian cuisine in the form of borscht, cabbage rolls, and dumplings. In the 16th-18th centuries, Russian cuisine absorbed all the best that existed in the cuisines of European countries: salads and green vegetables, smoked meats, chocolate, ice cream, wines and liqueurs, sugar and coffee.

According to some information, potatoes appeared in Rus' thanks to Peter I, and he contributed to the spread of this plant in the central regions of Russia. But there is an opinion that Russian potato varieties could not have appeared from Europe, because they belong to northern plants, and European varieties are closer to southern plants. In Siberia, the Urals, in the Arkhangelsk, Novgorod and Pskov regions, potatoes may have appeared earlier than in the southern regions.

The design of the Russian stove determined the method of cooking. Since the dishes were heated not from below, but from the sides, their side surfaces had to have a maximum area for heating the entire contents. Hence the rounded shape of pots and cast iron pots and the abundance of stewed, boiled, simmered and baked dishes in ancient Russian cuisine. Under Peter I, stoves and utensils adapted for frying and cooking over an open fire began to appear in Russian kitchens: pots, baking trays, skimmers. French chefs introduced exquisite dishes and sauces into the diet of the nobility, and the custom of frying meat came from Holland. Aristocrats of the 18th and 19th centuries invited European chefs who made a huge contribution to the development of Russian cuisine. Some dishes that are considered Russian actually appeared thanks to French and Austrian chefs: Beef Stroganoff, chicken Kiev and charlotte. Russian cuisine did not succumb to foreign influence, but adapted dishes to Russian realities.

Orthodoxy had a strong influence on all aspects of Russian life, not excluding traditional Russian cuisine. Frequent strict fasts (up to 220 days a year), during which Orthodox Christians could eat only plant foods and sometimes fish, contributed to the emergence of many Lenten (vegetarian and even vegan) soups, appetizers, main courses and desserts. Most Lenten Russian dishes have no analogues in other cuisines of the world, for example, the simplest dish tyurya made from salt water with bread and onions. Lenten dishes are rich in vitamins and microelements, but do not contain fat, which allows you to cleanse the body and give it strength for hard peasant work.

The design of the Russian stove made it possible to cook without oil and fat, so during Lent, Orthodox Christians could prepare delicious steamed, boiled or stewed vegetables, mushrooms, jelly, pancakes, Lenten breads and porridges. The variety of grains and methods of processing them made it possible to prepare several types of porridges.
During non-strict fasts, the Russian table was replete with all kinds of fish dishes. It was baked, stuffed with mushrooms and porridge, dried and boiled. The caviar was salted and boiled in vinegar.

In Rus', porridge was eaten as an independent dish and as a side dish for fish and meat. Initially, porridges had a sacred meaning and were an important part of many rituals. A large amount of porridge was prepared during collective work, especially during the harvest, when it was necessary to quickly feed a whole team. On the Don, the word “porridge” was used to describe an artel or people working together. The best porridges were considered to be the hard, crumbly ones. Liquid porridges were considered the lowest grade. Real crumbly porridge is very easy to cook in the oven. If you steam porridge cooked on the stove in the oven, you will get a similar result.

Among Lenten Russian desserts there is an interesting dish - malt made from sprouted rye grain. This liquid dish is pink in color with a honey aroma, rich in vitamins. Malt was eaten during winter fasts. The sweet taste of this dish is achieved by carefully maintaining the temperature balance, which is important for the fermentation of malt. Kulaga, a sweet dish made from malt flour and potatoes, was prepared in a similar way. The sweet taste of kulaga is due to glucose formed during the fermentation of starch. Oatmeal - a thick, salty, lean dish made from fried oatmeal - was eaten at any time of the year.

In the 19th century, a Russian meal consisted of several courses; later, at dinner parties, all dishes began to be put on the table at once, in accordance with French custom. The first course of the meal was appetizers of cabbage, potatoes, fish or meat. Russian cuisine has almost no salad recipes, except for vinaigrette, which is called “Russian salad”. Black caviar has always been an affordable product in Rus', especially in the south and the Volga region. Appetizers from the century before last can compete with modern main courses in nutritional value.

The second course was hot meat or vegetable soups. The word soup comes from French, and in ancient times liquid dishes in Rus' were called stew. In Russia, great importance was attached to soups, and every housewife knew many recipes for soups for all occasions. In the summer we usually ate cold soups: okroshka and botvinya with kvass, beetroot soups, light vegetable soups. If there was no fasting, noodles were prepared with meat, mushrooms or milk. Shchi, borscht, solyanka, rassolniki and ukha made the table varied and did not require expensive ingredients.

Classic Russian okroshka is made from two vegetables. One vegetable necessarily has a neutral taste (boiled potatoes, rutabaga, carrots, fresh cucumbers), while the other has a pronounced taste and smell (parsley, celery, tarragon). Neutral-tasting fish, beef or chicken are added to okroshka. The obligatory elements of okroshka are boiled eggs and sour cream. Mustard, black pepper or pickles are used as seasonings.

Shchi is one of the oldest dishes of Russian cuisine. Cabbage soup is remarkable because it knows no class boundaries. Although rich and poor use different ingredients to prepare cabbage soup, the basic principle remains the same. The specific taste of cabbage soup was obtained only in a Russian oven, where the cabbage soup was infused for several hours after it was ready. The required components of cabbage soup are cabbage and an acidic element (sour cream, sorrel, apples, brine). Carrots or parsley root, herbs (green onions, celery, dill, garlic, pepper), meat and sometimes mushrooms are added to cabbage soup. Sour cabbage soup is made from sauerkraut; gray cabbage soup - from the outer green cabbage leaves; green cabbage soup - from sorrel.

Ukha was originally called meat broth. Only in the 17th century did this word acquire its modern meaning - fish broth or soup. The ear uses a minimum of vegetables. Classic ukha is a strong broth served with fish pies. For fish soup, small-sized fresh river fish is best suited. Each type of fish in Russian cuisine was prepared separately, without mixing with others, in order to enjoy the pure taste. Therefore, Russian cookbooks describe fish soup from each type of fish separately.

The third course of the classic Russian meal is meat and fish dishes and porridge. Often large pieces of meat were boiled in soup or porridge and served as a separate dish. In ancient Russian cuisine, chopping meat is not encouraged; it is cooked and served as a whole piece. An example of this custom is roasting a whole bird, suckling pig or ham. The only exception to the rule is jellied meat or jelly. Porridge and boiled vegetables served as a side dish for meat dishes. Sometimes soaked sour apples, cranberries and sauerkraut were served. Meat gravies are uncharacteristic of traditional Russian cuisine. Cutlets became a property of Russian cuisine only in the 18th and 19th centuries. Pelmeni became popular only in the 19th century, but they fit so harmoniously into the structure of Russian cuisine that there is no doubt about their origin.

Desserts complete the Russian meal. In Russian cuisine there are many flour dishes: pies, pancakes, gingerbreads, Easter cakes, cheesecakes, cheesecakes, kulebyaki, pies. Ancient Russian drinks (sbiten, kvass) are original and are not found in the traditions of other nations, although mead and beer are known wherever there is honey and hops.

Russian cuisine recipes

Lenten borscht
Ingredients:
1 head of onion,
1 beet,
1 carrot,
2 tbsp. l. vegetable oil,
1 jar of tomato paste,
5 medium potatoes,
1 Jerusalem artichoke,
1 head of cabbage or kohlrabi,
dill inflorescences,
Bay leaf,
garlic,
salt.

Preparation:
Fry the onions, add beets and grated carrots and simmer until half cooked, add tomato paste. Place potatoes and Jerusalem artichokes in boiling water, add salt and cook for 10 minutes. Add cabbage or kohlrabi and cook for another 10 minutes. Add the stewed vegetables, dill inflorescences, cook for another 5 minutes, add bay leaf and crushed garlic and remove from heat. Sprinkle the borscht in a plate with dill.

Stuffed cabbage rolls
Ingredients:
1 head of cabbage,
800 ml meat broth,
0.5 cups sour cream,
200 g minced meat,
1 onion,
2-3 tbsp. lard,
0.5 cups ground crackers,
0.5 cups boiled rice,
1 tbsp. flour,
2 yolks,
pepper, salt to taste.

Preparation:
Pass the lard and onion through a meat grinder, add minced meat, flour, crackers, rice, yolks, pepper and salt and mix. Soften a head of cabbage over steam, separate the leaves and wrap a spoonful of minced meat in them. Place the cabbage rolls in a pan with broth, bring to a boil, add sour cream and simmer for 20-25 minutes. You can also cook cabbage rolls in a double boiler.

Bishop's ear
Ingredients:
200 g sturgeon,
150 g potatoes,
1 onion,
1 parsley root,
400 ml chicken broth,
20 ml dry white wine,
green onions, dill, black pepper, bay leaf to taste.

Preparation:
Place chopped vegetables into the boiling broth and cook until half cooked, then add the fish and cook until done. Add spices and wine before serving.

Crucian carp in sour cream
Ingredients:
crucian carp,
flour,
vegetable oil,
sour cream,
salt,
pepper.

Preparation:
Gut the crucian carp, cut large ones into pieces, sprinkle with salt and pepper and leave for several hours. Roll in flour and fry in melted butter. When one side is fried, add sour cream and cook until done. Serve with buckwheat porridge.

Larks
Rolls in the shape of larks were baked on Candlemas (February 15) in honor of the imminent arrival of spring.
Ingredients:
1 kg flour,
30 g yeast,
130 g butter,
1 glass of milk,
0.5 cups sugar,
1 egg,
50 g raisins,
salt.

Preparation:
Dissolve yeast in milk, add flour, melted butter and sugar. Knead the dough until it stops sticking to your hands. Leave the dough in a warm place for 1-2 hours until it doubles in volume. Roll out the dough into a rope, cut into small pieces and fold them into a knot. Shape the ends of the knots in the form of a lark's head and tail, stick raisins in place of the eyes, and make cuts on the tail. Brush the larks with the egg beaten with sugar and bake for 15-20 minutes.

Quick pancakes
Ingredients:
1 tbsp. oils
200 g sifted flour,
100 g milk,
1 egg,
1 yolk,
salt and sugar to taste.

Preparation:
Mix all ingredients and leave for 30-40 minutes. After pouring the pancake batter into the pan, decorate the other side with dill and turn over. Serve pancakes with honey, sour cream or jam.

Easter
Ingredients:
1 kg of high fat cottage cheese,
150 g butter,
3-4 eggs,
3 tbsp. sour cream,
1 glass of syrup from any jam,
100 g raisins,
sugar and vanilla to taste.

Preparation:
Rub the cottage cheese through a sieve. Grind the eggs with a little sugar and mix with the cottage cheese. Add softened butter, sour cream and raisins and stir. Pour in the syrup, stirring continuously. Place gauze at the bottom of the pan or mold, place the mass on it and press down with heavy pressure. Leave in the refrigerator for 10-12 hours, then remove the Easter from the edges of the gauze and decorate with candied fruits and nuts.

Olga Borodina

Over the centuries-old history of our country, the Russian people have invented a huge number of culinary recipes. For many centuries, Russian cooking was undeservedly neglected: European gourmets considered it barbaric and rude. But, despite the lack of world recognition, Russian cuisine developed, adopted other people's experience, and was enriched with new dishes and recipes.

The leading role on the Russian table has always been played by soups. The word "soup" appeared in the Russian language only at the end of the 18th century. Before this, liquid dishes were called “bread”. Khlebova were divided into cabbage soup, kalya, fish soup, solyanka, borscht and stew; In the summer we usually ate cold soups: okroshka and botvinya with kvass, beetroot soups, light vegetable soups.

The most popular, of course, was cabbage soup - there were up to 60 types: with meat, with fish, head, with mushrooms, lazy cabbage soup, empty cabbage soup, daily cabbage soup, green cabbage soup, sour cabbage soup, nettle cabbage soup, etc. Although rich and poor use different ingredients to prepare cabbage soup, the basic principle remains the same. The required components of cabbage soup are cabbage and an acidic element (sour cream, sorrel, apples, brine). Carrots or parsley root, herbs (green onions, celery, dill, garlic, pepper), meat and sometimes mushrooms are added to cabbage soup.

Sour cabbage soup prepared from sauerkraut; gray cabbage soup - from the outer green cabbage leaves; green cabbage soup - from sorrel. Ukha was originally called meat broth. Only in the 17th century did this word acquire its modern meaning – fish broth or soup.

IN ear a minimum of vegetables is used. Classic ukha is a strong broth served with fish pies. Each type of fish in Russian cuisine was prepared separately, without mixing with others, in order to enjoy the pure taste. Therefore, Russian cookbooks describe fish soup from each type of fish separately.

Classical Russian okroshka prepared from two vegetables. One vegetable necessarily has a neutral taste (boiled potatoes, rutabaga, carrots, fresh cucumbers), while the other has a pronounced taste and smell (parsley, celery, tarragon).

IN okroshka add fish with a neutral taste, beef or chicken. The obligatory elements of okroshka are boiled eggs and sour cream. Mustard, black pepper or pickles are used as seasonings.

Another most important dish of the Russian national table is porridge. Initially, it was a ritual, ceremonial dish, consumed at holidays and feasts. In the 12th century. the word "porridge" was even synonymous with the word "feast". Having gradually lost its ritual meaning, porridge nevertheless became the main everyday dish of Russians for many centuries. Porridge found recognition not only on the people's table, but even on the royal table.

Peter I, for example, loved barley porridge so much that he declared it “Romanov’s favorite.” In order to “ennoble” the tsar’s favorite barley groats in the 19th century. renamed “pearl pearl”, i.e. "pearl" (from the word "pearl"). Nicholas II also demonstrated commendable continuity of generations and closeness to the people: at a gala dinner in honor of his coronation in 1883, barley porridge was served to the guests.

One of the most ancient Russian dishes - pancakes. No one knows when pancakes appeared on the Russian table, but it is known that they were a ritual dish among the pagan Slavic peoples. Russian people associate a wide variety of beliefs and traditions with pancakes: pancakes were a mandatory dish at funerals, and they were also fed to a woman in labor during childbirth. One of the traditions associated with pancakes that has survived to this day is Maslenitsa - an ancient pagan holiday. During the whole week before Lent, pancakes are baked in all Russian homes and eaten with various snacks - caviar, sour cream, fish, meat, mushrooms.

Another famous Russian flour dish is black bread. It is unpopular in other countries, but in Russia not a single dinner is complete without it. Black rye bread appeared in Russia in the 9th century. and immediately became my favorite dish. It was eaten both in rich noble houses and in peasant huts. White wheat bread began to be baked much later, and it became widespread only at the beginning of the 20th century.

White bread was perceived as a holiday food. Therefore, it was baked not in bakeries, like black, but in special bakeries, where it was slightly sweetened.

Another flour delicacy, known in Rus' even before the adoption of Christianity and which has survived (albeit in a modified form) to this day, is gingerbread. At first, gingerbread consisted of a mixture of rye flour with honey and berry juice - they were even called “honey bread”. These were the simplest and probably the most delicious gingerbreads, since honey made up almost 50% of them. However, gradually more and more spices began to be added to gingerbread: cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, lemon zest, nutmeg, star anise, mint, anise, ginger, etc. Spices have become a distinctive feature of gingerbread dough. Due to a change in the recipe, the baked goods also changed their name.

Of course, speaking about Russian flour dishes, one cannot fail to mention pies- the most famous and beloved dish of Russian cuisine. This is one of the genuine national products that has come to us from ancient times, having avoided any foreign influences. Since ancient times, pies have been baked on holidays to this day, and it’s not for nothing that the word “pie” comes from the word “feast.” Moreover, each festival corresponded to a special type of pies, which caused a variety of shapes, fillings and types of pies. All kinds of pies were baked in Rus': with meat, fish, herring, milk, eggs, cottage cheese, mushrooms, porridge, turnips, onions, cabbage. Pies also became desserts if berries and fruits were used as filling. Pies and pies still remain one of the favorite Russian dishes, which can be tasted both in an expensive restaurant and when visiting friends. From the 16th century we can talk about the differences between monastic, rural and royal cuisine.

In the monastery, vegetables, herbs, herbs and fruits played the main role. They formed the basis of the monks' diet, especially during fasting. Rural cuisine was less rich and varied, but also exquisite in its own way: at least 15 dishes were supposed to be served at a festive dinner. Lunch in general is the main meal in Rus'. In the old days, in more or less wealthy houses, four dishes were served in turn: a cold appetizer, soup, main course, and pies or pies. But at the feasts of the boyars, a huge number of dishes began to appear, reaching up to 50. At the royal table, 150-200 were served.

Lunches lasted 6-8 hours in a row and included almost a dozen breaks, each of which in turn consisted of two dozen dishes of the same name: a dozen varieties of fried game, salted fish, a dozen varieties of pancakes and pies. Dishes were prepared from a whole animal or plant; all kinds of chopping, grinding and crushing of food were used only in fillings for pies. And even then very moderately.

Fish for pies, for example, was not crushed, but layered. At feasts, it was customary to drink honey before the feast, as an appetite stimulant, and after it, at the conclusion of the feast.

I'm eating washed down with kvass and beer. This happened until the 15th century. In the 15th century, “bread wine” appeared in Russia, i.e. vodka. However, despite the difference in the number of dishes between the rich and the poor, the nature of the food retained national characteristics. The nature of the preparation of Russian cuisine is largely determined by the peculiarities of the Russian oven, which, as a hearth, has faithfully served both ordinary city people, noble boyars, and townsman peasants for centuries.

The design of the Russian stove determined the method of cooking. Since the dishes were heated not from below, but from the sides, their side surfaces had to have a maximum area for heating the entire contents. Hence the rounded shape of pots and cast iron pots and the abundance of stewed, boiled, simmered and baked dishes in ancient Russian cuisine. The ovens were large, and several foods could be cooked in them at the same time. Despite the fact that the food sometimes smelled slightly of smoke, the Russian oven also had advantages: dishes cooked in it had a unique taste.

Under Peter I, stoves and utensils adapted for frying and cooking over an open fire began to appear in Russian kitchens: pots, baking trays, skimmers. Cooking in a Russian oven, while giving Russian cuisine its originality, at the same time limited the variety of cooking dishes. Mixing products, grinding them, crushing them was not allowed (this especially applied to the meat table - even in pies, fish and meat were not crushed, but layered). In addition, church tradition dominated Russian cuisine: for each day, in accordance with its significance in the church calendar, a table was assigned in advance. Even rich people kept this kind of gastronomic calendar, which, of course, did not contribute to the development of the culinary imagination of their cooks.

By the end of the 17th century it became popular jelly(from the word “icy”, that is, cold: firstly, jelly must be cold, otherwise it will spread over the plate; secondly, it was usually eaten in winter, from Christmas to Epiphany, that is, in the coldest time of the year). The most popular drinks were berry and fruit juices with fruit drinks, as well as tinctures.

Mead- a drink based on bee honey - was stronger, and then vodka appeared. But since ancient times, the main Russian drink remained bread. kvass. They made it with everything - from raisins to mint! French culinary specialists trained a galaxy of brilliant Russian chefs who made a significant contribution to the development of Russian and world cuisine.

The dishes they invented received completely Russian names. For example, “Pozharsky cutlets”, to which even Pushkin paid tribute. The author of these famous chicken cutlets, rolled in breadcrumbs, is the wife of the owner of a tavern in Torzhok, Daria Pozharskaya. They say that Alexander I unexpectedly stopped in Torzhok due to a crew breakdown. It was decided to dine at Pozharsky’s most decent tavern, where the menu included veal cutlets. They were ordered to the royal table. But there was no veal in the tavern, so Daria prepared chicken cutlets. The Tsar really liked these cutlets and soon became a popular Russian dish.

Another famous Russian cutlet - Kyiv - has a rather interesting history. These cutlets, consisting of whole chicken breasts with melted butter inside, were first served at the beginning of the 20th century. in the restaurant of the Merchant Club on Nevsky Prospekt. Then these cutlets were called “Novo-Mikhailovskie” in honor of the Mikhailovsky Palace, located nearby. Time was merciless to both the Merchant Club and its restaurant, but it was kind to the dish invented by the chefs. For a long time it remained in oblivion, but in 1947 the cutlets were served to a narrow circle of Ukrainian diplomats at a dinner on the occasion of the return of their delegation from Paris, where they signed a peace treaty with Germany. It was then that the cutlets received a new baptism and a new life.

Unfortunately, not all Russian dishes had a happy fate. Many of the original Russian dishes today, alas, have lost their meaning for the Russian people, many recipes have not been preserved at all. For example, the former variety of fish dishes has now been reduced to almost a minimum: classic fish dishes like " body". This, of course, is connected not only with the loss of tradition, but also with a significant depletion of Russia's fish wealth. Many vegetables have almost gone out of use, giving way to imported ones that have taken root on Russian soil. So, before the advent of the potato, it played a huge role in the nutrition of the Russian people turnip, which is rightfully considered the ancestor of vegetable crops cultivated in Rus'. This vegetable stores well, so it was eaten all year round in different forms.

Dried turnips, which tasted like dried fruit, were considered a village delicacy. By the way, unlike their descendants, Russian people used not only the root vegetables themselves as food, but also the tops, making salads and fillings for their favorite soups from them (beet tops were considered especially tasty). The lack of records caused serious damage to the Russian culinary tradition.

The first semblance of a cookbook was compiled in 1547. However, instead of detailed recipes, only a list of Russian dishes was compiled - without any explanation of what should be cooked and how. The consequences of this frivolity were disastrous: the names of the dishes turned out to be such that today scientists - experts in the Russian language - cannot decipher even a fourth of these records. How, for example, is the dish under the mysterious name “Shchipana steamed” prepared? The recipe for this dish will probably remain an eternal mystery. Russian culinary specialists showed no more foresight at a later time.

The first cookbooks in Russia appeared in the 18th century. - on the wave of passion for French cuisine. Recipes for Russian dishes were included in these cookbooks only as an addition, since Russian food was considered plebeian. In addition, the compilers were sure that there was simply no need to write down Russian recipes, since “any woman knows how to cook it.” This turned out to be the greatest misconception. When at the beginning of the 19th century. chefs began to restore the Russian culinary tradition, it turned out that the recipes for many dishes had already been lost and there was no one to find them out.

The first book of Russian recipes, “Russian Cookery,” was compiled by a Tula landowner in 1816. The author of the book had to compose many descriptions from memory, which is why “Russian Cookery” did not reflect the full richness of the dishes of the Russian national table.

The Old Russian stage of the development of Russian cuisine lasted almost 500 years. We can judge the originality of the cuisine of that period from one of the ancient written monuments - the book “Domostroy”, which was written by the adviser to Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, Sylvester. In fact, this book can be considered the first cookbook in Russia, because the author compiled a list of contemporary dishes and drinks. The cuisine of that time was distinguished by strict rules and traditions that were observed in every family. The best food was considered to be one made according to a recipe received from one’s mother or grandmother. It has always been customary to carefully look at how the same dish is prepared by different housewives. Old Russian cuisine required strict adherence to the recipe, and culinary fantasies were not particularly welcomed. The food was simple, not very varied, but the dishes and drinks served should have been numerous, especially on the festive table. The originality of ancient Russian cuisine was determined both by the products that were used and by the methods of their preparation. Dishes in Old Russian cuisine were divided into flour, dairy, meat, fish and vegetable.

Foods made from flour included, first of all, bread, mainly rye, which appeared several centuries ago and still remains characteristic of Russians. Rye bread was considered healthier than wheat bread, and many medicinal properties were attributed to it. Wheat bread was the so-called holiday bread. It was served on special occasions and baked in the form of rolls.

Pies rightfully occupied second place among flour products. According to the method of preparation, the pies were “yarn”, they were fried in oil, and “hearth”, baked in the oven. Hearth doughs were always prepared from leavened dough, using yeast, and yarn doughs could also be made from lean dough. The pies had an oblong shape and varied in size. The large ones were called pirogi, and the small ones were called pirogi. All pies, with the exception of sweet ones, were served hot.
Other types of dishes baked from dough included loaf. It was a rich bread prepared in a variety of ways. The dough for the “broken” loaf was whipped in a separate bowl with butter, for the “set” one - with milk, for the “egg” one - with eggs. Kurnik, pancakes, cauldrons, cheesecakes, pancakes, brushwood and hung were also made from the dough.

We still successfully prepare some of these dishes today. Flour dishes also included jelly, which was traditionally brewed with flour and, of course, various porridges.
Dairy dishes were represented, first of all, by noodles with fresh or baked milk, milk porridges and all types of dairy products: cottage cheese, sour cream, sour cheeses.

In Rus', meat was eaten boiled or baked. Boiled meat was served in first courses: cabbage soup, fish soup, brine or in broths (sauces). The meat was baked in the oven. It was customary to eat lamb, beef and poultry (chickens, ducks, geese). They also prepared game meat: venison, elk, hare, and wild bird meat: ducks, geese, swans, hazel grouse and quail.

Rus' has always abounded in fish, both sea and river. It was dried, dried, salted, boiled and steamed. Fish was also served in the first courses: rassolniki, fish soup, solyanka (selyanka). It was eaten baked. Caviar has always been considered a special delicacy, especially fresh grainy caviar - from sturgeon and white fish. Caviar was consumed with vinegar, pepper and onions, it was boiled in vinegar or poppy (almond) milk, or fried.

Of particular note is the method and technology of preparing Russian national dishes. The stoves, built for heating the home, also served for cooking. In Russian cuisine, the cooking process has long been reduced to boiling or baking food in a Russian oven (frying was borrowed from the Tatars later). Boiled food was only boiled, and what was intended for baking was only baked. Thus, Russian folk cuisine knew neither the combination of products, nor their combination, nor double heat treatment. All hot cooking technology boiled down to heating. The heat of the oven could be of three degrees: “before the bread”, “after the bread”, “in the free spirit”, but the food was always cooked without direct contact of the dishes with the fire, heating only through a thick layer of hot bricks. The temperature could either be constant all the time, or falling if the oven gradually cooled, but never increased, as is customary with modern cooking on the stove.


The main feature of the Russian stove is its uniform, stable heat, which lasts for a very long time even after the stove has finished heating. Depending on the temperature in the oven, a different dish was prepared each time. The famous Russian pies were baked at a temperature of 200 °C: kulebyaki, rasstegai, kurnik and shangi; baked a whole pig or goose. In the cooling oven it was possible to simmer milk, cook crumbly porridges, and cook roasts. The taste of food cooked in a Russian oven was completely special due to the fact that the food was stewed or half-stewed.

For family celebrations and Orthodox holidays, it was customary for all families, regardless of income and class, to prepare the same specific dishes. Already in the ancient Russian period, ritual cooking acquired great importance; this tradition was preserved for a very long time, almost until the Soviet regime.
Among the festive dishes, especially noteworthy are those prepared for Maslenitsa, which is celebrated on the eve of Lent. The main difference of this holiday was riotous fun and an abundance of pancakes.

Each housewife tried to treat her family and guests to the fullest. And the main dish was pancakes. For gourmet meals, that is, on the Wednesday of Shrovetide Week, mothers-in-law invited their sons-in-law and daughters “to pancakes,” hence the expression “to the mother-in-law for pancakes.” This custom was especially observed in relation to young, recently married people. As a rule, on this day all the relatives gathered for a walk. But on Friday, at the mother-in-law's supper, the son-in-law treated his mother-in-law and father-in-law to pancakes. True, the treat was very unique. The curious thing was that the invited mother-in-law was obliged to send all the pancake belongings to the young couple’s house in the evening: a tagan, frying pans, a ladle and even a tub in which the pancake dough was mixed. The father-in-law sent flour and a tub of butter.

Russian people have a wide variety of beliefs and traditions associated with pancakes. There was a sign that if you feed a woman in labor pancakes, the birth will be easy, and the newborn will be strong and healthy. And on the funeral table, pancakes were an obligatory dish, symbolizing, on the one hand, the vicious circle of earthly existence, and on the other, the infinity of the existence of spiritual life. No one knows when pancakes first appeared on the Russian table, but it is known that they were a ritual dish among the pagan Slavs.

The division of dishes into Lenten and Meat dishes occurred very early in Russian cuisine and had a great influence on the formation of further traditions. On the one hand, the strict distinction between fasting and fasting tables has led to some monotony of the products and dishes used, but, on the other hand, it has enriched Russian cuisine with mushroom and fish dishes, dishes prepared from wild berries and herbs (nettle, gooseberry, quinoa, etc. ).

What was the Lenten menu? The most common were liquid dishes: stews, voles, solo-dukha, kulaga, oatmeal, oatmeal jelly with vegetable oil, as well as sauerkraut, salted mushrooms, mushroom dishes, porridges made from barley, oatmeal, millet, pearl barley, buckwheat, much later - baked potato. Perhaps the most famous Lenten food is prison. This is cold salted water with pieces of bread and onions.
Often during Lent they prepared oatmeal, which was made from oats fried, or rather kept overnight in a not too hot, but quite warm oven.

Flour obtained from such grains lost the ability to form gluten, but it swelled well in water and quickly thickened. The oatmeal was kneaded in chilled boiled water, which was lightly salted. It was the children's favorite treat. From thickened oatmeal, children sculpted fish, cockerels, bunnies - it was fun, tasty, and drove away hunger. They usually had oatmeal for an afternoon snack or dinner before going to bed.

Voleka is a liquid stew that was prepared from rye flour, or more precisely from fermented rye dough - raschina. The raschina was set to sour the day before. When it was sufficiently sour, water was boiled in a pot, salt, bay leaves, onions, raschin were added and “hammered” with a hammer (a device that was cut out of a young, carefully planed pine tree, on which fan-shaped thin knots 3-4 cm long were left) . The vole was seasoned with onions, dried mushrooms, and on some days of Lent, herring or dried fish.

Lent was followed by the most important Orthodox holiday - Easter, or the Resurrection of Christ. The Easter table was distinguished by its festive splendor, it was plentiful and very beautiful. They baked pig, lamb or ham, and fried veal. Flowers were used to decorate dishes, as well as tables, icons and the house. For the Easter meal they still bake Easter cakes, prepare Easter cottage cheese and paint eggs. According to ancient tradition, eggs were painted and placed on a dish among specially sprouted oats and wheat.

Christmas is one of the brightest Christian holidays. The evening before Christmas - Christmas Eve or nomad, got its name from the word "sochivo" - a ritual dish prepared from poppy juice with honey and porridge from red wheat or barley, rye, buckwheat, peas, lentils, and later rice. Sochi began the meal on Christmas and Epiphany Eves, as well as at homelands, christenings, funerals, with the only difference being that this porridge, more often called kutya, was different in composition. So, Christmas kutya was prepared during the Lenten season. It was prepared with poppy, almond, nut, and hemp juice with the addition of honey and chopped walnuts, hazelnuts, and almonds. On the second day of Christmas, they prepared Babya porridge, or Babkina kutya. In ancient times, it was the custom to visit the house where a newborn was born, and among the gifts to bring grandma’s porridge and grandma’s pies. Unlike the Christmas Lenten kutia, babkina was prepared “rich”. At the wake, they served the Lenten funeral kutia - “kolivo”. By the way, in ancient times rye or wheat straw, stem and ear were also called “kolivo”. Hence, perhaps, the name kutya, since the Old Believers, for example, prepared it only from red wheat. This custom continues to this day.

Among the family holidays for which it was customary to prepare special dishes are weddings and funerals.

A traditional Russian wedding was usually held in the fall, and preparations for the big day could last about two months and consist of several stages, none of which could be skipped; this was considered a bad omen. As for the wedding dinner, there was a whole set of rules and regulations on this matter. On the Russian wedding table, the dishes were deeply symbolic. Dough has always been a symbol of prosperity and fertility. Therefore, the first thing they prepared for the wedding was a loaf. In some provinces, the word “loaf” was used to describe the wedding itself. And a loaf of bread is a special wedding rite. Pies were also baked for weddings. Only a woman who lived with her husband in love and harmony and had good children could manage the baking: it was believed that family harmony was passed on to the young through the cake. The loaf was decorated with flowers and branches of viburnum (a symbol of love). The young one who takes the biggest bite
pie, and will be the master of the house. At the same time, the newlyweds at the festive table were not allowed to eat the same thing that the other guests ate. The groom could taste a little loaf of cheese and drink wine; the bride was most often not allowed even this, but the wedding table had to be laden with food. A loaf of bread was placed in the center of the table, surrounded by honey pies and rolls, biscuits, cheesecakes, and spicy gingerbread. A special pie was prepared for the wedding feast - “kurnik” with eggs baked inside and decorated with a chicken head made of dough. Since ancient times, the custom has come down to us of feeding newlyweds chicken before a festive dinner in secret from everyone. Chicken was certainly served to guests. Another mandatory treat for a Russian wedding is pork. Pork dishes were supposed to provide wealth and prosperity to the young. It must be said that until the 17th century. in Rus' they knew neither dancing nor orchestras, so the only entertainment at the wedding was a feast. When the snacks were eaten, a fried swan was brought in (among the common people, the swan was replaced by a fried rooster). The groom had to touch the bird with his hand and order it to be cut. The bride and groom could eat only after the end of the common feast in their bedchamber.

A very important feast, filled with numerous symbolic dishes, was the funeral feast. The indispensable dishes at lunch after a funeral were kutia, honey and oatmeal (cranberry) jelly, and in some areas - fish pie and pancakes. Kutya, as a rule, was brewed from whole, uncrushed grains - most often wheat. Kutya, like the grain from which it is prepared, symbolizes the constancy of the rebirth of life, despite death. Kutya was usually prepared sweet, with honey or molasses. They said, “the sweeter the kutya, the more pity the dead man is.” Kutya had to be taken with a spoon three times. In addition to rye, oatmeal or cranberry jelly, a bowl of honey diluted with water or mash was mandatory on the table. It was believed that they “paved the way for the dead.” As a rule, pancakes were served on the 9th and 40th days, and on the day of the funeral, pancakes were not placed on the table. In some areas they also served flour - flour brewed with boiling water and milk, or kulesh - porridge with lard. They ate with spoons (knives and forks were not used at the funeral table for a very long time), and the pie was broken with their hands. On fasting days, the funeral table had to be fast.

It is interesting that in traditional Russian cuisine it was not customary to mix foods, and even the Lenten table at first consisted of dishes in which each type of vegetable, mushroom or fish was prepared separately. Vegetables - cabbage, turnips, radishes, peas, cucumbers - were eaten raw and salted or steamed, boiled, baked. Dishes such as salads have never been typical of Russian cuisine and appeared in Russia already in the 19th century. as one of the borrowings from the West. And even then, at first they were made mainly with one vegetable, which is why they were called “cucumber salad”, “beet salad”, “potato salad”. Mushrooms and fish were also not mixed. They were boiled and salted separately from each other. Fish soup was cooked from one type of fish. To diversify the taste of dishes, spices were used. Onions and garlic were used, and in very large quantities, parsley, anise, coriander, bay leaves, black pepper and cloves, which appeared in Russia already from the 10th-11th centuries, and later, in the 15th - early 16th centuries, this set was supplemented with ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, calamus and saffron. Dishes were prepared with the addition of various oils: hemp, nut, poppy, wood (olive), and much later - sunflower.
In the medieval period, liquid hot dishes began to be consumed, which received the common name “bread”. These are fish soup and cabbage soup made from vegetable raw materials, as well as various types of flour soups.
At first, milk and meat were consumed quite rarely. Moreover, some types of meat were completely prohibited, for example veal. The meat was boiled, added to cabbage soup and porridge, but almost never fried. Cottage cheese and sour cream were made from milk.

The main sweets in Old Russian cuisine were honey and berries, from which jam was made. The berries were also dried, mixed with flour and eggs and made into gingerbread.

The culinary traditions of the Russian people go back to ancient times. Even in pre-Christian Rus', when Maslenitsa was celebrated and bloodless sacrifices were made to the gods, such once ritual dishes as porridge, pancakes, spring larks and others were known. Today we will talk about old Russian cuisine .

The Slavs were engaged in arable farming, growing rye, barley, wheat, oats, and millet. In the 10th century, according to travelers, the Slavs “sowed millet most of all.” During the harvest, they take millet grains in a ladle, raise them to the sky and say: “Lord, you who have given us food until now, give it to us now in abundance.”
A little later, the ritual porridge appears - kutia. It was prepared from grains with the addition of honey. The Slavs cooked ordinary porridge from flour, for which they ground grains, in water or milk. Bread was baked from flour - first unleavened flatbread, and then rolls and pies cooked with honey.
In Rus' they also cultivated garden crops. The most popular were cabbage, cucumbers, turnips, rutabaga and radish.

Ancient chronicles, telling about the fate of the state, wars and disasters, nevertheless sometimes mentioned facts, one way or another, related to food and nutrition.

Year 907 - in the chronicle, among the monthly taxes, wine, bread, meat, fish and vegetables are named (in those days fruits were also called vegetables).

Year 969 - Prince Svyatoslav says that the city of Pereyaslavl is conveniently located - “various vegetables” from Greece and honey from Russia converge there. Already at that time, the table of Russian princes and rich people was decorated with salted lemons, raisins, walnuts and other gifts from eastern countries, and honey was not only an everyday food product, but also an item of foreign trade.

Year 971 - during the famine, prices were so high that a horse's head cost half a hryvnia. It is interesting that the chronicler is not talking about beef or pork, but about horse meat. Although this happens during the forced wintering of Prince Svyatoslav’s troops on the way from Greece, the fact is still noteworthy. This means that there was no ban on eating horse meat in Rus', but it was probably consumed in exceptional cases. This is also evidenced by the relatively small proportion of horse bones in kitchen waste that archaeologists find.

Typically, to characterize what we would now call a “price index,” the cost of everyday products is indicated. Thus, another chronicler reports that in the lean year of 1215 in Novgorod “there was a cartload of turnips for two hryvnias.”

Year 996 - a feast is described at which there was a lot of meat from livestock and animals, and bread, meat, fish, vegetables, honey and kvass were carried around the city and distributed to the people. The squad grumbled that they had to eat with wooden spoons, and Prince Vladimir ordered to give them silver ones.

Year 997 - the prince ordered to collect a handful of oats, or wheat, or bran and ordered the wives to make “tsezh” and cook jelly.

So, bit by bit, we can collect in our chronicles a lot of interesting information about nutrition in the 10th-11th centuries. Describing the simplicity of the morals of Prince Svyatoslav (964), the chronicler says that the prince did not take carts with him on campaigns and did not cook meat, but thinly sliced ​​horse meat, beef or animals, ate them and baked them on coals.

Grilling over coals is the oldest method of heat treatment, characteristic of all peoples, and the Russians did not borrow it from the peoples of the Caucasus and the East, but have been used since ancient times. In historical literary monuments of the 15th-16th centuries, chickens, geese, and hares are often mentioned “spinned,” that is, on a spit. But still, the usual, most common way of preparing meat dishes was boiling and frying in large pieces in Russian ovens.

For a long time, cooking was a purely family affair. As a rule, they were led by the oldest woman in the family. Professional chefs first appeared at the princely courts, and then in monastery refectories.

Cooking in Rus' became a special specialty only in the 11th century, although mention of professional cooks is found in chronicles already in the 10th century.

The Laurentian Chronicle (1074) says that in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery there was a whole kitchen with a large staff of monastic cooks. Prince Gleb had an “elder cook” named Torchin, the first Russian cook known to us.

The monastic cooks were very skilled. Prince Izyaslav, who visited the borders of the Russian land and saw a lot, especially loved the “meals” of the Pechersk monks. Even a description of the work of cooks of that era has been preserved:

“And he put on sackcloth and a sackcloth retinue of votolyana, and began to create ugliness, and began to help the cooks, cooking for the brothers... And after matins he went to the cookhouse, and prepared fire, water, wood, and came to take the rest of the cooks from.”

During the times of Kievan Rus, cooks were in the service of princely courts and rich houses. Some of them even had several cooks. This is evidenced by the description of one of the houses of a rich man of the 12th century, which mentions many “sokachiy”, that is, cooks, “working and doing in the dark.”

Russian chefs sacredly preserved the traditions of folk cuisine, which served as the basis of their professional skills, as evidenced by the most ancient written monuments - “Domostroy” (XVI century), “Painting for the Royal Dishes” (1611-1613), table books of Patriarch Philaret and boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov, monastic consumable books, etc. They often mention folk dishes - cabbage soup, fish soup, porridge, pies, pancakes, kulebyaki, pies, jelly, kvass, honey and others.

The nature of the preparation of Russian cuisine is largely determined by the peculiarities of the Russian oven, which, as a hearth, has faithfully served both ordinary city people, noble boyars, and townsman peasants for centuries. It is impossible to imagine Ancient Rus' both without log huts and without the famous Russian stove.

The Russian stove with its mouth was always turned towards the door, so that the smoke could exit the hut through the open doors into the vestibule in the shortest way. The stoves in the chicken huts were large; several dishes could be cooked in them at the same time. Despite the fact that the food sometimes smelled slightly of smoke, the Russian oven also had advantages: dishes cooked in it had a unique taste.

The peculiarities of the Russian oven determine such features of our cuisine as cooking dishes in pots and cast iron, frying fish and poultry in large pieces, an abundance of stewed and baked dishes, a wide range of baked goods - pies, krupeniki, pies, kulebyak, etc.

Since the 16th century, we can talk about the differences between monastic, rural and royal cuisine. In the monastery, vegetables, herbs, herbs and fruits played the main role. They formed the basis of the monks' diet, especially during fasting. Rural cuisine was less rich and varied, but also exquisite in its own way: at least 15 dishes were supposed to be served at a festive dinner. Lunch in general is the main meal in Rus'. In the old days, in more or less wealthy houses, on a long table made of strong oak boards, covered with an embroidered tablecloth, four dishes were served in turn: a cold appetizer, soup, a second course - usually meat in non-Lenten times - and pies or pies, which were eaten “for dessert.” ".
The snacks were very different, but the main ones were all kinds of salads - a mixture of finely chopped vegetables, usually boiled, to which you could add anything you wanted - from an apple to cold veal. From them came, in particular, the vinaigrette known to every Russian household. By the end of the 17th century, jelly (from the word “icy”, that is, cold) became popular: firstly, jelly must be cold, otherwise it will spread over the plate; secondly, it was usually eaten in winter, from Christmas to Epiphany, that is, in the coldest time of the year). At the same time, fish soup from various fish, corned beef and sausage appeared. Rassolnik amazed foreigners with its refined taste. Cabbage soup - remember the proverb: “Shchi and porridge are our food” - so, cabbage soup was served with mushrooms, fish, and pies.

The most popular drinks were berry and fruit juices with fruit drinks, as well as tinctures. Medovukha - a drink based on bee honey - was stronger, and then vodka appeared. But since ancient times, bread kvass has remained the main Russian drink. They made it with everything - from raisins to mint!

But at the feasts of the boyars, a huge number of dishes began to appear, reaching up to fifty. At the royal table, 150-200 were served. Lunches lasted 6-8 hours in a row and included almost a dozen breaks, each of which in turn consisted of two dozen dishes of the same name: a dozen varieties of fried game, salted fish, a dozen varieties of pancakes and pies.
Dishes were prepared from a whole animal or plant; all kinds of chopping, grinding and crushing of food were used only in fillings for pies. And even then very moderately. Fish for pies, for example, was not crushed, but layered.
At feasts, it was customary to drink honey before the feast, as an appetite stimulant, and after it, at the conclusion of the feast. The food was washed down with kvass and beer. This happened until the 15th century. In the 15th century, “bread wine”, i.e. vodka, appeared in Russia.

In the 17th century, the order of serving dishes began to change (this applies to a rich festive table). Now it consisted of 6-8 breaks and only one dish was served during each break:
- hot dishes (cabbage soup, soup, fish soup);
- cold (okroshka, botvinya, jelly, jellied fish, corned beef);
- roast (meat, poultry);
- vegetable (boiled or fried hot fish);
- unsweetened pies, kulebyaka;
- porridge (sometimes it was served with cabbage soup);
- cake (sweet pies, pies);
- snacks.

As for drinks, for example, the register of those released from Sytny Dvor to receive Polish ambassadors read: “The table in the outfit (from Sytny Dvor) was drinking about Vel. Sovereign: 1st supply: romanei, bastra, renskago, by purchase; 2nd feed: malmazei, mushkatelya, alkan, po kupku zh; 3rd serving: cypress, French wine, church wine, by purchase; red honey: 1 serving: cherry, raspberry, currant, ladleful; 2nd supply: 2 ladles of raspberry honey, 2 ladles of boyar honey; 3rd serving: 2 ladles of juniper honey, 2 ladles of wild cherry honey; white honey: 1 serving: 2 ladlefuls of molasses honey with cloves, a ladleful of ladle honey; 2nd feed: 2 ladles of honey with a musket, a ladle of honey ladle; 3rd serving: 2 ladles of honey with cardamom, 2 ladles of honey ladle. In total about the Great Sovereign: romanea, bastra, renskago, malmazei, muskately, alkana, cinnareia, French wine, church wine, 6 mugs each, and 6 glasses of vodka; red honeys: cherry, raspberry, currant, stone, bird cherry, juniper, scalded, by the ladle; white honey: ladle with nails, with musket, with cardamom, 8 mugs each, 9 mugs of sugar. About the boyars, and about the outskirts, and about the Duma people, and about ambassadors, and about the royal nobles: 2 mugs of aniseed vodka from Romanea, cinnamon, and 8 mugs of boyar vodka, 5 buckets of Romanea, 5 buckets of bastra, 2 buckets of Rensky, 5 buckets of alkane, 4 buckets of Fryazhsky wine, 3 buckets of church wine, 8 buckets of cherry wine, 4 buckets of raspberry honey...” And this is not the end of the register.

However, despite the difference in the number of dishes between the rich and the poor, the nature of the food retained national characteristics. The division occurred later, from the time of Peter the Great.

The formation of Russian cuisine was also influenced by cultural exchange with neighboring peoples. Immediately after the baptism of Slavic writing came to Rus' from Bulgaria, books began to be translated and copied, and not only liturgical ones. At this time, the Russian reader little by little gets acquainted with literary works, historical chronicles, natural scientific works, collections of sayings. In a very short historical period - during the time of Vladimir and especially his son Yaroslav - Rus' joined the culture of Bulgaria and Byzantium, Russian people actively assimilate the heritage of ancient Greece, Rome and the Ancient East. Along with the development of spiritual and cultural life, the introduction of church canons in Rus' significantly changed the nature of nutrition. Spices and seasonings came into use: black and allspice, cloves and ginger, overseas fruits - lemons, new vegetables - zucchini, sweet peppers, etc., new cereals - “Saracenic millet” (rice) and buckwheat.

Russian “cooks” borrowed many secrets from the Tsargrad masters who came to Muscovy - “skillful men, highly experienced not only in painting icons, but also in kitchen art.” Getting to know Greek-Byzantine cuisine turned out to be very useful for our cuisine.

The influence on Russian cuisine and our eastern neighbors - India was no less strong. China, Persia. The first Russian people who visited these countries brought back many new impressions from there. The Russians learned a lot from the famous book by Afanasy Nikitin “Walking across Three Seas” (1466-1472), which contains a description of products unknown in Rus' - dates, ginger, coconut, pepper, cinnamon. And the book by Vasily Gagara (written in 1634-1637) broadened the horizons of our compatriots. They learned about the products that were consumed by residents of the Caucasus and the Middle East. Here are his observations about how sugar production was carried out in the East: “Yes, in the same Egypt, reeds were born, and sugar is made from it. And they dig reeds near the sea... and when the reeds ripen, eat them as you would eat honey from a honeycomb.”

But our ancestors mastered not only practical cooking techniques. They also thought about the essence of the phenomena occurring. A long time ago they mastered the secrets of preparing yeast dough, which is mentioned in the chronicles: the monks of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra knew how to prepare custard bread that did not go stale for a long time.

Already in the XI-XII centuries. The Russians knew many rather complex techniques for preparing kvass, honey, and hops. They can be found in famous ancient Russian herbal books, as well as in various “lives”. Thus, kvass was widely known - rye, honey, apple, yashny, etc. Our ancestors were well versed not only in the intricacies of preparing various types of kvass, but also in the mechanism of action of sourdough and yeast, as evidenced by numerous instructions of the ancients:

“Pound and grind the wheat, and sow the flour, and knead the dough and leaven.” Or: “And they should ferment their kvass with sour grounds, not with yeast.” “Kvass separates copulation and pasting of dough and makes bread liquid and loaf.”

And other literary sources confirm the knowledge of Russian people in the field of food. Thus, the “Book of the verb cool vertograd” (XVII century) contains numerous discussions about the differences, for example, between cow’s milk and goat’s, hare’s and bear’s meat, etc. It is curious that even then the Russian people had an idea about the antiseptic properties of protein : “Egg whites are put into medicine... for sores and all sorts of subcutaneous wounds. It also helps with egg whites, soak them in hot water” (section “about chicken eggs”).

For a general idea of ​​nutrition in ancient times in Rus', here are several culinary recipes for popular dishes of that time.

Stuffed turnips. The turnips are washed, boiled in water until soft, cooled, the skin is scraped off, and the core is cut out. The removed pulp is finely chopped, minced meat is added and the turnip is filled with this filling. Sprinkle with grated cheese on top, pour over butter and bake.

Oatmeal jelly. Pour warm water over the cereal and leave it in a warm place for a day. Then strain and squeeze. Add salt and sugar to the resulting liquid and boil, stirring continuously, until thickened. Add milk to the hot jelly, stir, pour into greased plates, and refrigerate. When the jelly has hardened, cut it into portions and serve with cold boiled milk or yogurt.

"Peas in a block." The peas are completely boiled and pounded, the resulting puree is seasoned with salt and shaped (you can use molds, cups, etc., greased with oil). The formed pea puree is placed on a plate and poured with sunflower oil and fried onions, sprinkled with herbs.

Peasant bread soup. Fry small dry crusts of white bread in fat with finely chopped parsley and finely chopped onion, then add water, salt and pepper and bring to a boil. Stirring continuously, pour the mashed eggs into the soup in a thin stream. This soup, which tastes like meat, should be served immediately.

Sbiten-zhzhenka. To make the burnt sugar, heat the sugar in a spoon over low heat until a dark brown syrup forms. Dissolve honey in 4 glasses of water and boil for 20-25 minutes, then add spices and boil for another 5 minutes. Strain the resulting mixture through cheesecloth and add burnt liquid for color. Serve hot.

"Monastery Chicken" Chop the head of cabbage not very finely, put it in a clay pot, pour in eggs beaten with milk, add salt, cover with a frying pan and put in the oven. Cabbage is considered ready when it turns beige in color.